Exam 3 Flashcards
Out-group
refers to those individuals in a group who do not feel a part of the larger group
Out-group people may be/feel
may be in opposition or simply disinterested, may feel powerless, unaccepted, alienated, or even discriminated against.
4 forms of out-groups
- Minorities who think their voice won’t be heard
- People who feel their ideas are unappreciated
- People who do not identify with the group
- “Social loafers”: group members who are inclined to goof off or work below their capacity
4 reasons out-groups exist
- People disagree with the social, political, or ethical position of majority—in opposition.
- Some individuals cannot identify with beliefs, norms, or values & as a result do not embrace the dominant group’s reality (Social Identity Theory).
- People feel excluded by the larger group. They do not know where they “fit in.”
- People lack communication skills or social skills to relate to a larger group.
Stages of LMX
Testing and assessment
Development of trust
Creation of emotional board
Typically, the in-groups display
Greater mutual trust
Greater respect
Higher felt obligation
LMX Theory
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
- Leaders should create a special, high-quality relationship with each one of their followers.
- This results in out-group members becoming a part of the group.
6 practical implications of LMX
Avoid highly differentiated groups
Keep membership fluid and dynamic
Maintain different in-groups for different activities
Base in-group membership on performance and potential
Review criteria for in-group membership regularly
Consider culture when determining membership
3 adverse effects of out-groups
Run counter to building community
Have a negative impact on group synergy
Out-group members do not recieve the respect they deserve from others
6 ways to listen to out-groups in practice
Listen to out-group members.
Show empathy to out-group members.
Recognize the unique contributions of out-group members.
Help out-group members feel included.
Create a special relationship with out-group members.
Give out-group members a voice; empower them to act.
Listen to out-group members
More than anything, out-group members want to be heard.
Listening requires that leaders set aside their own biases to allow out-group members to express their viewpoints freely.
When out-group members feel they have been heard, they feel confirmed and connected to the larger group.
Show empathy to out-group members
Similar to listening, but more demanding
An effort to understand the feelings of out-group members
Leader must suspend his or her own feelings to “stand in the shoes” of out-group members
Techniques include restatement, paraphrasing, reflection, & giving support
Recognize Unique Contributions of Out-Group Members
Expectancy Theory: First step in motivation process is to let workers know they are competent in their work. Motivation builds when people know they are able to do the job.
It is common for out-group members to feel like others do not recognize their strengths.
Leaders should identify out-group members’ unique abilities & assets and integrate these into the group process.
Help Out-Group Members Feel Included
Out-group members do not feel as if they belong & need to feel included (Schutz [1966] research on interpersonal need for inclusion)
Leaders include out-group members by:
Responding to their communication cues appropriately
Asking for the out-group member’s opinion
Create a Special Relationship With
Out-Group Members
-Research Study on Out-Groups: LMX Theory
-Special relationships are built on: good communication, respect, trust
-Relationships are often initiated when:
Leaders recognize out-group members who are willing to step out of their scripted roles & take on different responsibilities
Leaders challenge out-group members to become engaged and try new things
Give Out-Group Members a Voice [& Empower Them to Act]
Allow out-group members to be on equal footing with other members of group.
When out-group members have a voice: they know their interests are being recognized and they have an impact
Empowering others to act
Allowing out-group members to be more involved, independent, responsible for their actions
Requires giving up some control & allowing out-group members to have more control
Includes allowing them to participate in the workings of the group (e.g., planning and decision-making)
Mutual agreement is possible in any conflict situation if
people are willing to negotiate in authentic ways
_____ plays a central role in handling conflict.
Communication
Conflict
a felt struggle between two or more interdependent individuals over perceived incompatible differences in beliefs, values, and goals, or over differences in desires for control, status, and connectedness
3 level conflicts occur at
intrapersonal
interpersonal
societal
4 aspects of conflict
struggle
interdependence
feelings
differences
2 dimension of messages
content
relationship
Content dimension of messages
Objective, observable aspects
What the message is about
Ex.: “Please stop texting at work”
Relationship dimension of messages
Indicates how the two parties are affiliated
Determines how the content dimension should be interpreted
2 types of conflict
content
relational
Content conflicts
regarding beliefs and values
regarding goals
Relational conflicts
issues of esteem
issues of control
issues of affiliation
Content conflicts, regarding goals (2 types)
Procedural: how do we reach the goal?
Substantive: what should our goal be?
Esteem
one of the major human needs
Control
the most common interpersonal conflict
-Each of us desires to have an impact on others. Having control increases our feeling of potency and minimizes feelings of helplessness.When we see others hindering us or limiting our control, conflict often results.
Affiliation
the need to feel included in our relationships, to be liked and to recieve affection
Fisher and Ury Approach to conflict
Principled negotiation emphasizes deciding issues on their merits rather than through competitive haggling or excessive accommodation.
Fisher and Ury: 4 principles of negotiation
people
interests
options
criteria
Negotiation principle: People
separate the people from the problem
- able to recognize uniqueness and needs
- mutually confront the problem
Negotiation principle: interests
focus on interests, not positions
position: our stance
interest: reasoning behind position
- address the “real” conflict
Negotiation principle: options
invent options for mutual gains
- we natually see conflicts as win or lose
- brainstorm for win-win
- where do interests overlap?
Negotiation principle: criteria
insist on using objective criteria
- unbiased lens
Differentiation
defines conflict and requires explaining positions
- focus on differences
- early in conflict
Differentiation is useful because
- focuses on conflict
- give credit to both interests
- depersonalizes conflict
Fractionation
breaking down conflict into smaller more manageable pieces
Fractionation is useful because
- less complex
- gives focus
- facilitates relationship
Face saving
consists of messages that individuals express to each other to maintain positive sel-images during a conflict
Face saving is useful because
- acknowledge other’s view without offense
- makes conflicts less threatening
3 ways to manage conflict
Differentiation
Fractionation
Face saving
Kilmann & Thomas Conflict Styles
Competing Collaborating Compromising Avoiding Accomodating
Avoidance Style
low on coopertiveness and assertiveness
Avoidance Style: pros/cons
advantages: trivial issue, great potential damage, cooling off period
disadvantages: counterproductive, furthers conflict, static approach, doesn’t solve anything
Competition Style
high assertiveness, low cooperativeness
essentially a win-lose
Competition Style: pros/cons
advantages: for quick decisive action, generate creativity, best efforts
disadvantages: winner and loser, creates unstable situation, failure to recognize needs
Accomodation Style
high cooperativeness, low assertiveness
confront problems by deferring to others
Accomodation Style: pros/cons
advantages: move away from uncomfortable feelings, works when issue is more important to one party
disadvantages: lose-win strategy, sacrifices ownn goals or values, need for harmony may override the need to find an optimal solution
Compromise Style
moderate on both cooperativeness and assertiveness
Compromise Style: pros/cons
advantages: attending to boths goals, works best after other styles have failed, force equal power balance
disadvantages: doesn’t go far enough resolving conflict, can be an easy way out, neither completely satisfied
Collaboration Style
high assertiveness and cooperativeness
- confronts conflict uses it to produce positice outcomes
Collaboration Style: pros/cons
advantages: both win, comm satisfying, relationships strengthened, cost effective long run
disadvantages: energy, hard work, shared control, takes time
why ethical leadership
leadership has a moral dimension bc leaders influence the lives of others
obligation to common good
ethical leadership
is the influence of a moral person who moves others to do the right thing in the right way for the right reasons
6 factors related to ethical leadership
character actions goals honesty power values
character of the leader
refers to the disposition & core values of the leader, developed
moral person demonstrates the virtues of courage, generosity, self-control, honesty, sociability, modesty, fairness, & justice
6 pillars of character
trustworthiness respect responsibility fairness caring citizenship
actions of the leader
ends justify means?
3 actions that show ethical standards
showing respect
serving others
showing justice
goals of the leader
Identifying & pursuing just & worthy goals are the most important steps an ethical leader will undertake
goals should incorporate
The interests of others in the group or organization
The interests of the community
The larger culture in which they work
honesty of the leader
quality in leader people want the most
honest=ethical
dishonest= bad interpersonal relationships
honesty challenge for the leader
striking a balance between being open & being candid while at the same time, monitoring what is appropriate to disclose in particular situations
power of the leader
the capacity to influence or affect others (beliefs, attitudes, actions)
5 common and important bases of power
referent expert legitimate reward coercive
values of the leader
the ideas, beliefs, and modes of action that people find worthwhile or desirable
3 kinds of leadership values
ethical values (kindness, altruism) modal values (responsibility, accountability end values (justice, community)
what is the giving pledge?
lead by Warren Buffett, Bill and Melinda Gates
billionaire make inspirational public promises to give away at least half their fortunes during their lifetimes
ethical leadership: the four component model
moral awareness
moral judgement
moral intent
ethical behavior
contributing factors to the four component model
individual factors
situational factors
frameworks of the four component model
telelogical (outcomes)
deontological (duty)
3 responsibilites of leadership
ethical
legal
economic
(individual characteristics + situational factors) + behavior=
outcomes
what people look for in leaders
honest
forward-looking
inspiring
competent
if you don’t believe the messenger…..
you won’t believe the message
what is meant by credibility
they do what they say they will do
why does credibility matter
more likely to: have pride in organization team spirit personal values match org org committment
if leaders lack credibility
more likely to: good work only when watched motivated by $ criticise org privately feel unsupported/appreciated look for other job
5 leadership practices from the leadership challenge
model the way inspire a shared vison challenge the process enable others to act encourage the heart
what does the “climate” of an organization mean?
the atmosphere; rituals, valus, procedure, underlying assumptions
what does it mean to be a constructive climate?
provides an atmosphere that promotes group members’ satisfaction and achieving their personal best
In establishing a constructive climate, leaders need to
Provide Structure
Clarify Norms
Build Cohesiveness
Promote Standards of Excellence
Providing structure gives people a sense of
security, direction, & stability
Group work without structure is
more difficult for everyone involved
How Can Leaders Provide Structure?
Telling people the goals of the group
Identifying the unique ways that each member can contribute to the group
Norms are
the rules of behavior that are established & shared by group members
Leaders need to try to shape norms that
will maximize group effectiveness
Cohesiveness is
the sense of “we-ness,” or the esprit de corps, that exists within a group
cohesiveness allows members to
Express their personal viewpoints, give and receive feedback, accept differing opinions, & feel free to do meaningful work
Appreciate the group & to be appreciated by the group
How Can Leaders Build Cohesiveness?
Create a climate of trust.
Invite members to be active participants.
Encourage passive members to become involved.
Listen and accept group members for who they are.
Help group members achieve their goals.
Promote the free expression of divergent viewpoints.
Share leadership responsibilities.
Foster and promote member-to-member interaction
Positive Outcomes of Cohesiveness
Increased participation and better interaction among members
Group membership is more consistent
Group exerts strong influence on members (i.e., behavioral norms)
Member satisfaction is high
Members are more productive
Negative outcomes of cohesiveness
groupthink
symptoms of groupthink
Illusion of invulnerability Belief in the morality of the group Collective rationalization Stereotyping outsiders Self-censorship Illusion of unanimity Direct pressure on dissenters Self-appointed mindguards
consequences of groupthink
Poor information gathering Selective information processing Development of few alternatives Failure of consider real risk fully Failure to reevaluation decision and alternatives Failure to develop contingency plan
Standards of Excellence are the
expressed & implied expectations for performance that exist within a group or organization
LaFasto and Larson (2001) identified several ways that leaders can influence performance and promote standards of excellence
require results
reviews results
reward results
