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Vet 401 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Neurochemistry

A

Study of neurochemicals, influencing the function of neurons and the regulation of the networks they form

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2
Q

Current Dogma of neuron comunication

A

Neurons communicate with each other through contiguous connections

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3
Q

Biological challenges of Neurons

A

Extend long processes, conduct signals over long distances, convey information in a polarized unidirectional manner (sensory to motor)

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4
Q

Glial cell current dogma

A

actively contribute to neuronal signaling and health 1:1 glial cells to neurons in brain

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5
Q

Macroglia and microglia

A

specialized macrophages (from HSC) for phagoscytosis (microglia), proliferate when the brain is damaged, immune and inflammation response, secrete gliotransmitters in response to the environment

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6
Q

Macroglia

A

Derived from ectodermal tissue,

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7
Q

Microglia

A

emulates peripheral macrophages, Phagocytize, scavenge CNS for plaques, damaged neurons and infectious agents

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8
Q

Macroglia cells

A

Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Ependymal cells, Radial glia, Schwann cells, satellite cells, enteric glial cells

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9
Q

Astrocytes role in brain metabolism

A

Take up glucose to supply energy, regulate K+, recycle neurotransmitter (Glutamate-taken up/synthesized by astrocyte)

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10
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Major neurotransmitter, fast neurotransmission, activate nicotinic cholinergic receptors and muscarinic receptors

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11
Q

Breakdown of Acetylcholine

A

use of acetylcholinesterase and water to break down into choline and acetate and water

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12
Q

Somatic

A

refers to body: body wall, head, neck, trunk, and limbs (muscles).

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13
Q

Homeostasis

A

maintenance of constant internal environment in response to external stimuli

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14
Q

Pertubation

A

Sensed activation of CNS, leading to increase in autonomic (efferent) outflow

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15
Q

Cathode

A

Negatively charged

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16
Q

Anode

A

Positively charges, usually spinning

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17
Q

mAs

A

current, milli-amps, total number of x rays produced

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18
Q

kVp

A

Killi-voltage, energy

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19
Q

Where are x ray beams produced

A

When the cathode shoots electrons to the anode, the anode creates x ray beams and shoots it out

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20
Q

Bremsstrahlung

A

Electron braking, slowing it down, the SPECTRUM of x ray energies, high atomic number to create a more medically usable image

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21
Q

Characteristic x rays production

A

Yields x rays of specific energies for a given target atom. Produces discrete x ray energies. direct interaction

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22
Q

Compton Scatter

A

High energy beams = more scatter of the x ray beam, Degrades image quality (bad)

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23
Q

Photoelectric Absorption

A

due to Lower energy beams, Allows for detection of different tissues (good)

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24
Q

Photoelectric effect

A

complete absorption of the x ray without forward scatter (white spot) , effect increases with higher Z matter and low energy x ray beam

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25
Q

Half Value layer

A

x ray attenuation, image due to thickness and what the material is made of

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26
Q

No x ray interaction

A

film exposure (black)

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27
Q

Neuron

A

the functional signaling unit of the nervous system

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28
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Produce the myelin sheath around the axon which insulates and allows electrical signals to propagate,

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29
Q

Astrocytes

A

Secrete gliotransmitters to minimize damage, regulate external chemical environment by signaling with calcium

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30
Q

Ependymal cells

A

line the spinal cord and ventricular system of the brain, synthesize/secrete CSF, sensing the environment in the CSF and communicate information in a polarized way to brain tissue

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31
Q

Radial Glia

A

Regulate synaptic plasticity (changing of ampliication of the signal), bidirectional communication with neurons, very important in development of nervous system

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32
Q

Schwann cells

A

Myelination in PNS, phagocytic activity,allow regroath of PNS neurons

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33
Q

Enteric glial cells

A

Found in GIT, regulate homeostasis and muscular digestion

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34
Q

Satellite cells

A

Surround sensory, sympathetic, and parasympathetic ganglia, regulate external chemical environment (gap junction/ Ca), sensitive to inflammation

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35
Q

Neoplastic Vasculature

A

Abnormal structure (leakage, fragility) signaling (paracrine and autocrine), continued growth of vasculature

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36
Q

Tissue and Metastasis

A

Loosening of intracellular junctions, attachment, Degradation, Migration

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37
Q

Carcinomatosis

A

Direct invasion or implantation

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38
Q

Routes of Mastasis

A

Hematogenous, Lymphatic, Direct invasion or implantation

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39
Q

Local Neoplastic effects

A

Neoplastic effusion or edema: Lymphatic infiltration/obstruction, Expansile mass in confined space, damage to adjacent tissue

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40
Q

Initiator of Neoplastic disease

A

mutagens, DNA damage, direct reacting carcinogen, Procarcinogen (requires metabolism to activate), DNA replication (irreversible)

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41
Q

Promoters of Neoplastic Disease

A

Positive selective pressure for initiated cells….

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42
Q

DNA mutagens and tumor initiation

A

Physical (radiation), chemical (plant toxins), Biological (bacteria/virus) mutagens

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43
Q

Projections from the spinal cord

A

Somatic, sympathetic and Parasympathetic

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44
Q

Somatic projection

A

Cell bodies lie in CNS, synapse at effector organ (skeletal muscle), nicotinic synapse, muscle subtype of the nicotinic receptor

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45
Q

Sympathetic Projection

A

Nicotinic receptor, epinephrine, Synapse in ganglia, outside spinal cord they are nicotinic, effector organs are noradrenaline, muscarinic

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46
Q

Parasympathetic Projection

A

Nicotnic (ganglionic synapse) and Muscarinic

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47
Q

Nicotinic receptor

A

ligand gated ion channels that mediate fast synaptic transmission of the neurotransmitter, respond to nicotine

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48
Q

Muscarinic receptor

A

G coupled proteins which are slow metabolic response via second messenger cascades, respond to muscarine

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49
Q

Nicotinic agonists

A

Activating: Phenyltrimethylamonium, nicotine, acetylcholine

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50
Q

Muscarinic agonist

A

Activating: Muscarine, acetylcholine

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51
Q

Nicotinic antagonist

A

Blocking: Complicated structures which are selective for receptors they affect, Trimethaphan

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52
Q

Muscarinic antagonist

A

Blocking: Atropine

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53
Q

Regulators of acetylcholine

A

Synthesis in nerve terminal (Choline + Acetyl coenzyme A), Transportation via vessicles (ATPase, ChAT, and VAChT)

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54
Q

Breakdown of Acetylcholine

A

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) present in insecticides

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55
Q

Muscarinic G- protein coupled receptors

A

Inhibition Adenylyl cyclase, Activation PLC, DAG, and IP3, regulate K+ channels

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56
Q

Glutamate

A

Derived from blood-borne glucose and AA that cross the BBB release from the nerve terminal, neurotransmitter

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57
Q

Glutamate receptor subtypes

A

Ionotropic (NMDA, AMPA, Kainate), Metabotropic (Class I, II, III)

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58
Q

Ionotropic glutamate receptor

A

Utilizes a pore to allow molecules to pass through, fast responses

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59
Q

Metabotropic glutamate receptor

A

Slow reacting, utilizes G coupled proteins to generate a response or activate ionotropic receptors

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60
Q

GABA receptor structure

A

5 subunits, GABA binding site

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61
Q

GABA synthesis

A

GABA shunt during the TCA cycle

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62
Q

Metabotropic GABA receptors

A

Inhibitory receptors, prevents sodium channels from opening due to hyperolarization of the neuron

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63
Q

GABA receptors

A

GABAa (ionotropic), GABAb (metabotropic)

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64
Q

Adaptive changes of cells

A

Atrophy, Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, Metaplasia

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65
Q

Nonadaptive changes of cells

A

Dysplasia, Neoplasia, Carcinoma in situ

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66
Q

Benign tumor (3)

A

Local growth, expansion, pendunculation, encapsulated by fibrous tissue, well-differentiated, low mitotic index, solid supporting stroma, excision curative, Adenoma

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67
Q

Malignant tumor (3)

A

Metastasis, expansion and invasion/infiltration, unencapusulated, Anaplasia (poorly differentiated), increased mitotic index, local recurrence, carcinoma

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68
Q

Epithelial tumor derived from:

A

Any embriologic tissue, glandular, non-glandular, Ductular

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69
Q

Mesenchymal tumors Derived from:

A

Stromal, “Connective tissue” (muscle, fibroblasts, adipose tissue, bone and cartilage), Blood and Lymph, Hematopoietic tissue, cells with a matrix

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70
Q

Round cell tumors

A

Hematopoietic, exceptions in nomenclature, Leukemiasm mastocytoma vs mast cell tumor, lymphosarcoma vs lymphoma, individualized cells, round, infiltrate adjacent tissue in streams

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71
Q

Cancer

A

unregulated growth of immortal cells capable of local tissue invasion and distant spread (metastasis), caused by the environement and genetics, once changes its irreversible

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72
Q

Initiation of cancer

A

Starting down the neoplastic pathway, Genetic irreversible stage, EGF receptor is mutated

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73
Q

Promotion of cancer

A

Selective pressure, Nongenetic reversible, secretes growth factor, preneoplastic lesion/benign tumor

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74
Q

Progression of cancer

A

Genetic/nongenetic, irreversible (additional mutations)/reversible (increased expression in growth factor), malignant

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75
Q

Preneoplastic changes

A

Hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, dysplasia

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76
Q

Metaplasia

A

Altered differentiation of cells, ex: change of epithelial cell to squamous cell

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77
Q

Dysplasia

A

Loss of architectural arrangement, increase in cell pleomorphism

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78
Q

Pleomorphism

A

Describes specific cells, on cells type with differences in appearance, Homogenous

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79
Q

Neoplasia

A

Physiologic-independent new growth- may be benign or malignant, growth of cell that is not responsive to normal cues of the body

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80
Q

Carcinoma in situ

A

non-invasive neoplasm- cellular atypia but intact basement membrane

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81
Q

Anisocytosis

A

Variation in cell size and shape

82
Q

Anisokaryosis

A

Variation in nuclear size and shape

83
Q

Anaplasia

A

Loss of features associated with differentiation of a particular cell type- hard to identify what type of cell is present

84
Q

Homogenous

A

Describes entire cell population, 1 cell type throughout the population, indicative of cancer

85
Q

Heterogeneous

A

Describes entire cell population, comprised of several cell types, indicative of normal organ structure or physiological process

86
Q

Monomorphism

A

Describes specific cells, homogenous population of cells that appear to be the same

87
Q

Benign mesenchymal tumor naming

A

Cell of origin: _____ +oma

88
Q

Malignant Mesenchymal tumor naming

A

Cell of origin: _____ + sarcoma

89
Q

Epithelial tumor feature

A

large, polygonal cells with a defined border, Benign: Pedunculated (contains a stalk and becomes a polyp or papilloma), Malignant: scirrhous response or necrosis

90
Q

Scirrhous response (malignant epithelial tumor feature)

A

reactive tissue stroma, scar formation

91
Q

Necrosis (malignant epithelial tumor feature)

A

ulceration, umbilication

92
Q

Benign epithelial nomenclature

A

Adenoma, glandular

93
Q

Malignant epithelial nomenclature

A

Carcinoma

94
Q

Hamartoma

A

Overgrowth of cells

95
Q

Choriostoma

A

Overgrowth of cell that are not normally present

96
Q

Teratoma

A

Germ cell tumor (contains endo, ecto, meso- tissue)

97
Q

Angiogenesis

A

Vascularization occurs to allow tumors to secrete their own growth factors

98
Q

MMP

A

Matrix metalloproteases function to degrade tissue matrix to allow the invasion of tumor cells

99
Q

Sprouting Angiogenesis

A

Hypoxia of the tumor causes a release of growth factors to allow vascularization to occur

100
Q

Vasculogenesis

A

Line blood vessels, some tumors are able to form their own vascular channels by recruiting EPC (endothelial progenitor cell)

101
Q

Neoplastic Vasculature

A

Abnormal structure (leakage), abnormal signaling (paracrine and autocrine), and continued growth of vasculature

102
Q

Tumor angiogenesis

A

Tumor progression, continued growth/metastatic disease

103
Q

Solid tumor growth

A

Intra-tumoral hypoxia, necrosis of tumor tissue

104
Q

Malignant tumor growth steps

A
  1. Loosening of intracellular junction, loosens its attachment to basement membrane and pulls itself towards the BM, degradation of collagen, Migrate through BM
105
Q

Tumor- stromal interactions

A

Tumor infiltrating WBC, Tumor matrix, Necrosis & Hypoxia, Tumor Vasculature, Tumor population

106
Q

Tumor Infiltrating WBCs

A

secrete cytokines, change tumor stroma and interact with tumor itself to destroy or propagate tumor

107
Q

Necrosis & Hypoxia

A

stimulates angiogenesis, increase proteins and enzymes which help with cell survival

108
Q

Tumor population

A

Making and secreting growth factors to activate themselves and neighbors

109
Q

TUmor Vasculature

A

Secrete growth factors and signaling molecules, tumor vessels they’re recruiting

110
Q

Tumor Matrix

A

Fibroblasts proliferate and signal growth

111
Q

Acceptable Margin

A

400-500 um

112
Q

Routes of Metastasis

A

Hematogenous (blood supply), Lymphatic, Direct invasion or implantation (carcinomatosis)

113
Q

Lymphatic invasion of metastatic disease

A

Draining lymph nodes used to biopsy, subcabsular sinuses are affected first and then invasion of the lymph node

114
Q

Carcinomatosis

A

Direct spreading, cells released and wherever they touch cancer grows

115
Q

Neoplastic effects

A

Local/regional, effusion lymphatic infiltration, expansile massin confined space, damage to adjacent tissue

116
Q

Paraneoplastic syndromes

A

Systemic effects of neoplastic disease, complex pathogeneses, significant morbidity, may precede tumor identification

117
Q

Cachexia

A

paraneoplastic syndrome, complete reprogramming of the metabolism, increases fat store degradation, increases breakdown of muscle and inhibits new muscle formation, anaerobic glycolysis

118
Q

Initiators of neoplastic disease

A

mutagens, DNA damage or mutation, Procarcinogen (require metabolism to activate, Irreversible!

119
Q

DNA mutagens & Tumor Initiation

A

Physical, Chemical, Biological mutagens

120
Q

Physical Mutagens

A

UV damage, exposed skin/mucus membranes, squamous cell carcinoma, chronic inflammation or trauma (post fracture osteosarcoma)

121
Q

Chemical Mutagen

A

Vaccine-associate sarcomas: fibrosarcoma, osteosarcoma Mycotoxin, Braken fern

122
Q

Viral mediated Oncogenesis

A

DNA virus: Transform by expression of viral protein, RNA virus: Retrovirus (viral integration in genome, random) leukemia

123
Q

Papillomavirus and cancer

A

E6 protein: p53 degradation, E7: sequesters Rb in cytosol

124
Q

Ways to record radiographic images

A

Photosensitive film, computerized images (computed radiography, digital radiography, computed tomography)

125
Q

Composition of x ray film

A

Base (stable, inert, support for emulsion), Emulsion (AgBr crystals in emulsion)

126
Q

Film

A

used for high resolution, due to the size of the crystal

127
Q

Intensification screens

A

x-rays photons emit light photons to expose film, made of rare earth screens which require special films and lights, cassette

128
Q

kVp in film

A

Kilovoltage, controls energy behind the x ray beam, high contrast=low kVp, imaging characteristic, affects overall exposure and how the beam interacts with tissue, controls exposure and CONTRAST

129
Q

mAs in film

A

Milliamperage times seconds, total number of x rays produced during exposure, double mAs=double the radiation exposure, controls exposure

130
Q

Contrast in film

A

High contrast is very black and white, Good for looking at bones (Low kVp, high mAs)

131
Q

Latitude in film

A

Lots of shades of grey, Good for soft tissue in the thorax (High kVp, low mAs)

132
Q

Four contributors to subject contrast

A

tissue thickness, Photoelectric effect (PE), Compton’s scatter, Beam energy- low kVp favors increased PE and contrast

133
Q

Motion in exposure time

A

short exposure, high kVp, keeping mAs small so the image is taken quickly

134
Q

Thorax radiology technique

A

Inspiration, short exposure time low mAs, high kVp

135
Q

Abdomen radiology technique

A

Exposure between expiration and inspiration, Longer exposure times (higher mAs), kVp should be kept as low as possible

136
Q

kVp and mAs relation in film

A

15% change in kVp will result in same change in film as halving or doubling mAs

137
Q

Scatter radiation

A

Originates within patient due to compton interactions, related to volume and density of the object, 50-70% of x rays reaching the cassette are scatter

138
Q

Film proocessing

A

Development, Fixation, Washing

139
Q

Recording with x ray film pos/neg

A

Pos: inexpensive, permanent, high resolution, Neg: complex development and storage, susceptible artifacts, low tolerance for error

140
Q

Cassette Based radiology

A

Stores x ray information, laser passes over Storage phosphor, electrons fall form excited state to give off light, light detectors digitize and record the light emitted

141
Q

Digital radiology

A

light emitting crystal converts x rays to light, 1 crystal per pixel, light from each pixel is represented as a shade of gray within seconds, high room for error!

142
Q

Veterinary genetics

A

The study of inherited disease that occur in animals

143
Q

Ultrasound

A

Diagnostic modality which allows you to see sound, for soft tissue, cross-section imaging

144
Q

Ultrasound steps

A

Sound is sent out, hits an object, reflected back.

Loud reflections are white, no reflections are black

145
Q

ECHOgenic

A

having or producing echos, white

146
Q

ECHOrich

A

Full of echos

147
Q

isoECHOic

A

same echos as another organ

148
Q

AnECHOic

A

Free of echos, Urine and bile, black

149
Q

How does ultrasound work?

A

Signal production via Piezoelectric crystal pulsed which creates a pulsed electric energy, the machine listens for the vibrations and mapping it

150
Q

Footprint of ultrasound machine

A

The window where signal is sent and received

151
Q

Frequency of Ultrasound

A

Cycles per second, MHz, penetration

152
Q

Wavelength of ultrasound

A

Distance traveled per cycle mm, resolution

153
Q

Velocity in ultrasound

A

1540 m/s soft tissue constant, V=Frequency x Wavelength (inversely related)

154
Q

High Frequency Transducers

A

Better Resolution, Poor Penetration

155
Q

Low Frequency Transducers

A

Better depth Penetration, Resolution is decreased

156
Q

Axial Spatial Resolution

A

Along the axis of the beam, improves with higher frequency and shorter wavelengths

157
Q

Determinants of Image Quality

A

Frequency of the transducer, #of crystals in transducer, machine quality, and patient (size, shape, examination)

158
Q

Ultrasound image

A

Image based on fate of signal as it enters the patient and returns to probe, Attenuation (striping or weakening of ultrasound beam): Absorption, scattering, reflection

159
Q

Acoustic impedance

A

unique tissue characteristic, aids in distinguishing organs, high AI are reflective

160
Q

Reflection

A

Larger differences in acoustic impedance mean more reflection, less penetration

161
Q

Orders echogenicity hypoechoic to hyperechoic

A

Urine, Renal Medulla, Renal Cortex, Liver, Spleen,Prostate, Renal Sinus, bone/Gas (my cat likes sunny places)

162
Q

Hyperechoic

A

Mineral, gas, Fat, fibrous tissue, bright and highly reflective

163
Q

Hypoechoic

A

water, fluid, edema, lymphoma, cell populations, black not reflective, ascities urine, Bile and blood

164
Q

Liver Ultrasound

A

Slightly course echotexture, Hypoechoic compared to spleen

165
Q

Spleen Ultrasound

A

Fine repeatable echotexture, hyperechoic compared to liver

166
Q

Artifacts

A

Reverberation, Shadowing, Enhancement, Edge Shadowing, Mirror Image

167
Q

Reverberation

A

Sound bouncing back and forth between two strong reflectors, GAS and skin surface

168
Q

Dirty acoustic shadowing

A

Billions of reverberation artifact between probe and soft tissue, Gas, Black

169
Q

Clean (sharp) shadowing

A

Mineral, calculus, urinary bone, bright white with black distal triangular region

170
Q

Acoustic enhancement

A

Through transmission artifact, increased echogenicty distal to an anechoic structure (black with increased bright), Fluid filled structures

171
Q

Edge shadowing

A

Ultrasound beam strikes a curved surface which refracts (inward/outward) convergent or divergent, results in decreased in beam energy/intensity

172
Q

Mirror Image

A

Results in mirror image across a strong reflector usually gas/soft tissue interface (Liver diaphragm/Lung interface) due to improper depth setting

173
Q

CT general charecteristics

A

High detail cross-sectional images, Minimal anatomic superimposition, Ability to reformat to view anatomy in any plane or in 3 D

174
Q

CT image formation

A

Relies on differences in tissue densities, dense/bone= bright, low density= dark, Density measured in Hounsfield units

175
Q

Function of Nervous system

A

Communication and control network, reaction of organism to the environment (internal/external)

176
Q

Neural circuits

A

Sensory detection (changes in environment), Information processing, change in function/behavior

177
Q

2 parts of the Nervous system

A

Central nervous system, Peripheral nervous system

178
Q

Central nervous system

A

Brain and spinal cord, cell neuronal body resides here

179
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

Nerves and nerve fibers taking information to and from the brain to peripheral tissues, Cranial nerves (connects head and body), Spinal nerves (spinal cord, neck, trunk, tail, limbs) ~interaction of CNS to PNS

180
Q

Autonomic Nervous system

A

Involved in special senses (hearing, vision, smell), motor system that controls smooth and cardiac muscle, glands and other visceral organs, “fight or flight”

181
Q

Sensory (afferent) axon

A

Peripheral nerves contain axons that conduct impulses to the CNS

182
Q

Motor (Efferent) axon

A

Peripheral nerves contain axons that conduct impulses from the CNS to muscle and glands of the body

183
Q

Neuron pathways of ANS

A

Two neuron pathway: Preganglionic and Postganglionic

184
Q

Preganglionic

A

Cell body in CNS, myelinated nerve fiber, can affect many postganglionic fibers

185
Q

Postganglionic

A

Cell body outside CNS found in a ganglion in PNS, nonmyelinated nerve fiber

186
Q

Subdivisons of ANS

A

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

187
Q

Sympathetic

A

Preganglionic neurons (cell body) located in thoracic and lumbar spinal cord (Thoracolumbar)

188
Q

Parasympathetic

A

Preganglionic neurons (cell body) in brainstem and sacral spinal cord (craniosacral)

189
Q

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

A

Effects are coordinated, reciprocal or synergistic, tonically (always) active, differ

190
Q

Post ganglionic neurons cell body locations

A

Paravertebral ganglia, Prevertebral ganglia, Terminal ganglia

191
Q

Paravertebral ganglia

A

two sets of ganglia one lateral to each side of the spinal cord set of ganglia is linked longitudinally running axons to form sympathetic trunk (chain ganglia), sympathetic only

192
Q

Prevertebral ganglia

A

located in the abdomen, mostly sympathetic

193
Q

Terminal ganglia

A

in or around viscera, parasympathetic, synapse in target tissue

194
Q

Parasympathetic preganglionic and postganglionic fibers

A 
Preganglionic= long
Postganglionic = short
195
Q

Sympathetic preganglionic and postganglionic fibers

A 
Preganglionic= short
Postganglionic = long
196
Q

Sympathetic - Physiological

A

Catabolic, prepares for action, May be activated globally including release of epinepherine from adrenal gland, Fight or flight

197
Q

Parasympathetic - Phsyiological

A

Anabolic, promotes vegetative functions, lacks massive activation potential of sympathetic system, rest and digest

198
Q

Two major neurotransmitters in ANS

A

Acetylcholine (ACH) cholinergic receptors, norepinepherine acts on adrenergic receptors

199
Q

Sympathetic Pharmacology

A

Preganglionic neurons: release acetylchoine onto nicotinic receptors
Postganglionicneaurons release norepinephrine onto alpha or beta receptors on target

200
Q

Parasympathetic Pharmacology

A

Preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine onto nicotinic receptors,
Postganglionic neurons release acetylcholine onto muscarinic receptors or target

201
Q

Peripheral nerves of ANS

A

contain sensory (afferent) neurons, involved in generating reflexes but also in mediating sensory modalities such as thirst, nausea, hunger, and pain

Vet 401 (2 decks)

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