Exam 3 Flashcards
What are the three criteria for classifying something as a wetland?
Saturated with water
Hydrophytes
Hydric Soils
Hydric Soils
One of the criteria of being a wetland
History of being wet and saturated
Anoxic, often OM-rich
What are the two ways a wetland can be classified?
By VEGETATION
By HYDROLOGY
What types of VEGETATION are found on different types of wetlands?
EMERGENT
FORESTED
SCRUB/SHRUB
SHALLOW WATER/MACROPHYTES
What is EMERGENT vegetation and what types of wetlands is it found on?
Dominated by grasses, sedges, and non-woody forbs
Found on Marshes, fens, and Wet Meadows
What is FORESTED vegetation and what types of wetlands is it found on?
Trees are present
Found in SWAMPS
(think Swamp People)
What is SCRUB?SHRUB vegetation and what types of wetlands is it found on?
Often borders a lake or stream, SCRUFFY-LOOKING
Found in shrub bogs or alder wetlands
What is SHALLOW WATER vegetation and what types of wetlands is it found on?
Dominated by macrophyte beds
Found in ponds and wetlands
What three water sources are considered in the HYDROLOGY of a wetland?
GROUNDWATER
SURFACE FLOW
PRECIPITATION
What type of wetland receives mostly GROUNDWATER?
FEN
What type of wetland receives mostly SURFACE FLOW?
SWAMPS
MARSHES
What type of wetland receives mostly PRECIPITATION?
BOG
What are the four functions of wetlands?
Provide habitat for fish and wildlife
Flood attenuation
Sediment and nutrient retention
Carbon sequestration
How does waterlogging effect soils and the chemistry of wetlands?
Prevents O2 presence in soils
Promotes ANaerobic respiration
Increases: denitrification,
sulfate reduction,
prod. of methylmercury,
Iron reduction (decreases bound PO4)
methane production
What are the water quality implicaitons of waterlogged soils?
Reduce high nutrient levels
Biogeochemistry hotspots: they have important processes that are rare in other ecosystems
What are the positive/negative effects of water on plants in wetlands?
NEGATIVE: Waterlogging restricts O2 access
Oxic stress on most plants, which limits the distribution of many species
POSITIVE: Moist soils are very productive
What causes variations in the channel form of streams?
Sediment supply from surrounding hills
Channel slope
River’s Hydrology
What are the four habitats associated with rivers and streams?
Water column
Benthic Zone (Upper/well-oxygenated)
Hyporheic Zone (Mixing of stream and ground water)
Floodplains
What is the “Master Variable” for the hydrology of rivers and streams, and how is it calculated?
DISCHARGE
Q = v * A
Volume of water passing through a channel cross-section per unit time.
What is a FLOW REGIME?
Characteristic discharge pattern of a river over time
Flow magnitude, duration, frequency of floods, etc
How can we use information about the flow regime?
Identify determinants of stream community composition
Assess extent of human alteration
HARSH intermittent regimes - physical control
MESIC groundwater regimes - biotic interactions
What affects the temperature variation in rivers and streams?
STREAM ORDER
GROUNDWATER INPUTS
SUNLIGHT
What controls the light inputs into streams and rivers?
Surrounding environment (trees, canyons/banks)
Water characteristics (depth, suspended/dissolved material)
How do small streams and large rivers differ in their “light regimes”?
SMALL STREAMS: Lots or little light, depending on geography and season. Light easily reaches bottom
LARGE RIVERS: Lots of light due to open canopy, but rarely reaches bottom due to depth and turbidity
What is the oxygen profile typically like in rivers and streams?
HIGH O2 throughout, due to large air/water interface and turbulent flow
Hyporheic Zone - Low O2
EXCEPTIONS: Low O2 in turbid streams and below sewage outfalls
What is the MAJOR force driving the evolution of lotic organisms?
Adapting to flowing water
What are some ways that organisms have adapted to life in rivers and streams?
Maintaining position during discharge extremes: Hooks, claws, suction cups, balast, body shape
Acquiring food: Filter-feeding
What are some characteristic patterns of the biota in SMALL and MEDIUM rivers and streams?
Small-med streams: Shallow, Hi Light, physically variable
No Plankton! Benthic orgs rule (MACROINVERTEBRATES), periphyton
What are some characteristic patterns in the biota in LARGE rivers?
Large Rivers: Deep, turbid, range of flow velocities
Plankton (Phyto & Zoo)
Benthic invertebrates restricted to lateral areas
Big fish rule!
Where is ~ 20% of global runoff stored?
RESERVOIRS
What classifies a LARGE dam vs a SMALL dam?
Large: 6 ft tall + 60 acre-ft basin or
8 ft tall + 15 acre-ft basin or
pose downstream threat
Small: Smaller than above
How are reservoirs divided into types and what are the different types?
Based on FLOW MODIFICATION
- Run of river
- Flood control
- Hydropower
- Water Supply, Recreation
What is a “Run of River” reservoir?
Downstream flow regime not substantially altered, flows over top
What is a “Flood Control” Reservoir?
Releases water during low flows, stores water during high flows
What is a “Hydropower” Reservoir?
Releases water when energy is needed each day
What is a “Water Supply/recreation” Reservoir?
Makes water available when/where needed
What are the two ways a dam can release water to affect flow patterns?Q
Epilimnetic Release
Hypolimnetic Release
What is Epilimnetic Release and how does it affect rivers and streams?
Pulls water from the top (warm) part of the river and releases it after the dam
Can change the temperature differences between top and bottom, also increase O2 level in post-dam portion
What is Hypolimnetic Release and how does it affect rivers and streams?
Pulls colder, denser (sometimes saltier) water from the bottom of the upstream river and releases it downstream
Can decrease O2 level downstream and increase temperature differences
What is the lotic → lentic transition near dams?
When the river goes from shallow to a deep reservoir as it gets closer to the dam
What is the LOCUSTRINE zone?
The CLOSEST part of the reservoir to the dam
Has the SLOWEST flow / no distinct currents
What is the TRANSITIONAL zone?
Between riverine and locustrine
Most SEDIMENTATION occurs (Coarse then fine sediments)
What is the RIVERINE zone?
The part of the reservoir that is FARTHEST from the dam, where current is QUICKEST and the channel is the shallowest
When you first see depth increase and current decrease
What are over/inter/underflows and what dictates which occurs?
OVERflows: riverine water flows on the TOP of the reservoir water
INTERflows: riverine water flows in the MIDDLE of reservoir water
UNDERflows: riverine water flows at the BOTTOM of reservoir water
Affected by DENSITY, which is affected by TEMP, SUSP. SEDIMENTS, and SALTS
What is STRATIFICATION like in reservoirs?
Depends on size and operation, erratic
LARGE: Often monomictic or polymictic
SMALL: May not stratify, but incoming river can warm up
How does PRIMARY PRODUCTION change with AGE in reservoirs?
Young: initial upsurge due to decomp of terrestrial material, then depression
Old: After depression, increase from eutrophication
How does PRIMARY PRODUCTION change with LOCATION within a reservoir?
What are two main downstream effects of dams?
Flow alteration: Can “homogenize” flow regime
Temperature: Epi/Hypolimnetic release can change fish spp depending on O2 and temperature
What are some CUMULATIVE effects of dams in the US?
FRAGMENTATION of continuous river habitats
Decrease in BIODIVERSITY of migratory fishes, mussels, and riparian vegetation
Alter the GEOMORPHOLOGY of river beds
Change the HYDROLOGY of a watershed
Affect the CHEMISTRY of ecosystems
What are the major fluxes of water in the Earth’s hydrologic cycle?
PRECIPITATION
SURFACE RUNOFF
GROUNDWATER FLOW
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
What are the two main drivers of Earth’s hydrologic cycle?
Gravity (Pulls water down)
Solar Power (Brings it back up)
How is river water changed on the landscape?
PHYSICALLY: changes in temp and particles suspended in it
CHEMICALLY: leeching, reactions, dissolution, etc
How is water different in the saturated and unsaturated soil zones?
UNSATURATED: held tightly to soil by capillary force
SATURATED: AKA ground water, under the water table
What is the difference between ground water RECHARGE and DISCHARGE?
RECHARGE: inputs to groundwater from precip/surface waters
DISCHARGE: Output from groundwater to surface water from springs/seeps
Capture Zone/Contributing Area
Kind of like a watershed, but more on a groundwater basis
Land surface area over which precipitation and snowmelt infiltrate to the water table and flow to the well/lake/spring
Aquifer
A geological formation through which groundwater can move (be extracted)
Water table
Depth to the saturated zone
How does the depth to the water table change in different locations and over time?
Smaller near permanent water bodies
Changes over time from differences in RECHARGE, WITHDRAWAL and ET
How do HIGHLAND and LOWLAND lakes differ in their water inputs/outputs?
HIGHLAND: considered to be SEEPAGE lakes, which receive very little input from groundwater or surface runoff, but a normal amound ot precipitation
LOWLAND: considered to be DRAINAGE lakes, which receive LOTS of groundwater and surface input
SEEP OUT, DRAIN IN
What are some chemical and ecological characteristics of highland lakes?
Low conductivity
Low chlorophyll
Low # fish species
Less groundwater
Smaller size
What are some chemical and ecological characteristics of lowland lakes?
High conductivity
High chlorophyll
High # of fish species
More groundwater
Larger size
More habitat and species diversity
Seepage Flux
Groundwater discharge into a lake
How does groundwater affect fish spawns, salmon, and desert fish?
Spawning: eggs require high O2 and often low T
Salmon: Nests in stream bed areas of GW DISCHARGE
Desert Fishes: Build nests in bed areas of groundwater RECHARGE
Watershed
Total area of alnd that contributes water to a body of interest
Land Use/Land Cover (LULC)
Plant/water cover or how land is used (urban, agriculture, wetland, prairie, forest, etc)
How are LULC effects identified?
By relating an ecological variable to % land cover (of peatlands, agriculture, etc)
What are common effects of agriculture on aquatic ecosystems?
Increased Nutrients
Higher Sediment and OM inputs
Warmer stream temperatures
Decrease in biotic indices/health
What are common effects of Urbanization on aquatic ecosystems?
More impermeable surfaces
Storm sewers act as streams
Reduced groundwater recharge (Water table goes down)
Higher surface runoff -> flash floods -> erosion
What is “Urban Stream Syndrome”?
The effect of all of the impervious surfaces causing flash floods and more variability in stream flow.
How does urbanization affect water quality?
Decreases it by:
Less GW flow + Rapid runoff -> limited removal of solutes/sediments
What can be done to reduce the effects of urbanization?
Increase GW recharge by making RAIN GARDENS
Slow down runoff with SETTLING PONDS
What can be done to reduce the effects of agriculture?
What are the pro(s) and con(s) of these methods?
Increase coverage of riparian zones
PROS: slow runoff, catching P and sediments
Low O2 and High OM -> Good for Denitrification
CONS: Max nutrient capacity
GW can “miss” the RZ, making it ineffective
At what rate is ice cover shortening on Lake Mendota?
18 days shorter every 100 years
What is the projection of changes in average temperatures in Wisconsin by mid-century?
4 - 9° C warmer by mid century
What is the difference between MITIGATION and ADAPTATION of/to environmental impacts?
MITIGATION: reducing our emissions
Deals with the CAUSE
ADAPTATION: lessen the effect of emissions ON US
Deals with the EFFECT
How much algae grows from 1 kg of Phosphorus?
500 kg of algae
Why are blue-green algae a special problem for lake conservationists?
They are not a very edible part of the food chain
They can produce toxins
Shade out macrophytes
What causes a big part of the nutrient inpts into Lake Mendota?
Agricultural runoff from manure spreading during the winter.
What is one way the manure problem can be solved?
Development or use of anaerobic manure digesters
What is the difference between an EXOTIC, NON-NATIVE, and INVASIVE species?
EXOTIC: From another country/continent
NON-NATIVE: From another part of same country
INVASIVE: Implies undesirable impact
What is the leading threat to biodiversity in lakes?
Invasive species
How much do invasive species cost per year?
$137 Billion
What are common features of invasive species?
Broad environmental tolerances
Effective dispersal (Esp piggy-backing on humans)
High rate of population increase
Unique ecological niche
Predator-resistant
What are the components of a successful invasion?
Colonization (Getting there)
Establishment (Proliferating)
Impact (On native biota)
What are the emerging invaders in WI lakes and rivers?
Rusty crayfish
Zebra mussel
Rainbow smelt
Spiny water flea
How are invasive species spread by human activities?
Boaters - Ballast water on ACTIVE boaters
Baitbuckets of fishermen
RUSTY CRAYFISH
Native range, Spread in WI, Vulnerable systems, imacts
Native Range: Central USA
Spread in WI: SPread to NE corner, then everywhere
Vulnerable Systems: pH >/= 5.5, Ca >/= 3 mg/L
Impacts: Now 50% of all WI Crayfish, reduce macrophyte richness and abundance
ZEBRA MUSSEL
Native Range, Attributes, Spread in USA, Distro in WI, Vulnerable WI systems
Native Range: Caspian Sea
Attributes: “Perfect invader”, High reprod. rate, Planktonic larvae, Filter water column, draw productivity to bottom, PSEUDOFECES
RAINBOW SMELT
Spread in USA, Impacts, Distro in WI, Vulnerable WI systems
Spread: East coast -> Crystal Lake, MI -> Lake MI -> GL
Impacts: Native fish decline bc rainbow smelt eat young
Distro in WI: From GL
Vulnerable Systems: N WI lakes mostly, but also SE
SPINY WATER FLEA
Spread in USA, Impacts, Distro in WI, Vulnerable WI systems
Spread: Eurasia -> GL -> inland via recreational boaters (Madison Lakes in 2009)
Impacts: Eat zooplankton (Daphnia) which improve water quality
Distribution in WI: Mostly Southern/Central WI
Vulnerable Systems: ALL
How many people …lack access to safe drinking water?
lack sanitation systems for their water?
die annually from water-related disease?
are affected by severe drought every year?
1 Billion lack access
3 Billion lack sanitation
5-10 Million die from water-related disease
25 Million/yr are affected by drought
What is water’s residence time in…the atmosphere?
Rivers?
Lakes?
Groundwater?
Fossil aquifers?
12 days atmosphere
30 days rivers
17 years lakes
100s of years GW
1000s of years Fossil aquifers
How did water availability/person decrease from 1950-2000?
It went from 16000 m3 to 6000 m3
What is considered water stress and water scarcity in terms of per capita volume of water per year?
Water Stress: 1000-1700 m3/person/yr
Water Scarcity <1000 m3/person/yr
40% of world population under water stress
What are “Cones of Depression” and how do humans cause them?
They are local areas where the water table is lowered to a point where withdrawal is faster than the recharge rate.
Caused by human withdrawal of water
What is going on with the Ogallala aquifer?
It supplies water for ~20% of US farmland
Withdrawal is 8-100x the recharge rate
Will be dry by 2020 or earlier
Water conservation will NOT prevent drying out
What is going on with the Aral Sea?
4th largest inland sea
Massive diversions for irrigation
Dried up rivers
Lake Volume has dropped by 70%
All native fish spp GONE
50% of native birds/mammals gone
Altered climate/desertification -> more pesticides and fertilizers
Highest infant mortality in Asia
What is going on with California’s water?
Federal system of dams, pumps, and aqueducts bring water from North to the South
Los Angeles vs Agriculture
Ag is 2% of economy, 83% of water usage
Palm Springs has 269 golf courses, federally-funded water usage
What can be done to conserve water?
Increase supply (dams, mine GW, transfer from Canada)
Slow population growth
Improve efficiency of water use
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