EXAM 3 Flashcards
• Logic of Prisoner’s dilemma
Each of two criminals is offered immunity from prosecution in exchange for a confession. If both stay silent, both get off with a light sentence on a minor charge (upper left). If both confess, both receive a moderate sentence (lower right). But if one turns state’s evidence while the other stays mum, the confessing criminal goes free and the silent one spends a long time in jail. (best strategy – tit for tat – mimic other person)
• real life Social dilemmas of prisoners game
public goods (certain threshold of people have to contribute for it to be there – blood bank, voting, taxes, EC in 101), common dilemmas (opposite – if too many people use the resource they all suffer – grazing sheep, water)
• 2 Influences on solutions of social dilemmas (prisoners game)
psychological factors and situational factors
• Factors that increase the chances of cooperation
group identity (make a name, feel bonded), norms of fairness (individual or collective sense), norms of punishment (we’re evolutionarily wired to get mad at cheaters, also to seek revenge at a cost to ourselves), accountability, reputation, reciprocity, pay it forward
• Aggression
- any behavior that involves the intention to harm someone else
• Roles of serotonin and testosterone
serotonin (low levels associated with being impulsive), testosterone (high level can have an effect but not as clear)
• Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
really high sexual drive because of a damaged amygdala
• Frustration-aggression hypothesis
frustration leads to aggressive behavior, even pinning infants arms makes them lash out
• Culture of honor study - aggression
there are nonviolent societies, US is a moderately aggressive culture, within US “culture of honor” in the South and West - subcultures where we’re cultured our males to defend their turf and their honor - Southern men seen as more polite than Northern men, but if their turf is threatened they can get aggressive - had insult/no-insult condition, this suggests that we’re not an inherently violent species
- Some explanations for altruism
- Cost of not helping would be more detrimental because you would feel bad and not be able to live with yourself
- Evolutionary psychology explanations – kin selection (more likely to help those who share our genes), norms of reciprocity
- Social exchange explanations – still self-interest, to maximize our rewards (reciprocity norm, gain social approval, increase self-esteem), minimize our costs (reduce our own distress)
- Can ease other’s distress if you identify with them (swap places in a shock study if you feel empathy)
• Influences on whether or not people will help
urban overload hypothesis, p luralistic ignorance, diffusion of responsibility, bystander intervention effect, time pressure, social norms
• Urban-overload hypothesis
when we’re in dense the urban-overload hypothesis - when we’re in dense crowded conditions, we shut down a little bit and are less likely to help
o the unhelpful crowd - why? 3 things
diffusion of responsibility and the bystander effect - put them in situation where smoke is coming into room where you’re filling out forms - if you’re alone, probably will go do something, if there are others and they don’t react, they often don’t, in another study, if you hear something bad in the next room, more likely to go get help if they’re alone, but if with others, assume someone else will do it, or that it’s not as big a problem - called pluralistic ignorance (if nobody else is concerned, I don’t want to stick out)
- The difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs
- Cross-sectional studies – comparing different groups to make inferences about both (ex – young and old)
- Longitudinal research designs – reassessing the same participants over time to years to look at change
• Dynamic systems theory
the view that development is a self-organizing process, where new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and his or her cultural and environmental contexts
• Explains emergence of new behaviors (dynamic systems theory)
new behaviors occur through person’s active exploration of environment and constant feedback from that environment – every new behavioral skill to emerge is the result of a complex and dynamic system of influences
• Synaptic pruning – why?
use it or lose it – have more synapses than they need – focus on those use and myelinate important circuits, brain organizes itself by what it considers to be important environmentally
• The impact, short- and long-term, of poverty and malnutrition on early brain growth
less myelination, lack energy to interact with objects and people in their environments, lack of stimulation creates deleterious effects that change them throughout life
• Piaget - basic ideas
believed that children develop cognitively through interactions with their environment – 4 stages of cognitive development
• Assimilation
placing a piece of information into a bin that is pre-existing
• Accommodation
taking a new piece of information that doesn’t fit into existing schemas and creating a new one
What are the 4 stages of cognitive development according to Piaget? Yrs?
Sensorimotor (0-2), Preoperational (2-7), Concrete operations (7-11), Formal Operations (11+)
• Sensorimotor
(0-2) – uses senses and motor skills to explore/develop cognitively, no object permanence (slowly develops), A not B phenomenon
• Preoperational
(2-7) – capacity to represent world using symbols, including language, but errors in thinking – lack conservation (centration, reversibility), confuse appearance and reality, egocentrism
• Conservation - def, why not possible at preop
can’t hold two competing ideas in mind at once/focus on more than one thing – ex – water into a bigger glass, spreading out pennies, line length when not parallel, mashed clay ball, spreading out squares in an area
egocentrism – how Piaget tested these in children
tested using pictures of mountains, cant see from another person’s perspective because can’t hold two competing ideas in their minds at once
• Concrete operations
(7 to 11)
• Thinking based on mental “operations”
• can mentally manipulate and think logically about objects and events
• Can do conservation problems (can understand that actions are reversible)
• Limits: Cannot think abstractly and hypothetically (instead focus on the real and concrete)
• Formal operations
(11+)
• Can think abstractly and hypothetically, e.g.,
• You are given 4 flasks of colorless liquid and one flask of colored liquid. By combining 2 of the colorless liquids, you can create the colored liquid. How to find the right 2 liquids? – systematically add one to the other (younger kids combine randomly)
• Vygotsky’s ideas
– can’t think about cognitive development without considering social aspects of learning, cognitive development a consequence of social interaction, culture → language → cognitive development, cognitive skills can increase when scaffolded within their ZPD
• Differences Piaget and Vygotsky
- piaget – child as little scientist, cognitive development about the same universally/globally, cognitive growth arises from child’s independent exploration, training not good at facilitating development
- vygotsky – child as apprentice, cognitive development different based on cultural context, cognitive growth from social interactions within culture, training can facilitate development
Zygotsky’s zone of proximal development
what they can do when scaffolded
• Zygtosky’s scaffolding
help from someone else to allow a child to do something at a higher level than they are capable of themselves
• factors that influence attraction and friendship
Physical Attractiveness • Proximity • Familiarity (mere exposure effect) • Similarity • Reciprocal liking
passionate love
state of intense longing and sexual desire, continually aroused, associated with dopamine reward systems like drugs
• companionate love
strong commitment to care for and support a partner, comes after passionate love in enduring relationships, develops over time based on friendship, trust, respect, and intimacy
• idealization
people who love their partners the most idealize them the most too, viewing them in an unrealistically positive light compared to everyone else, more likely to stick around longer than those with “realistic” view, helps hide ugly truths
• the section, “Staying in Love Can Require Work,” including Gottman’s research on what makes for happy marriages
– keep 5:1 ratio of positive to negative interactions, make partner-enhancing attributions, do things her way, avoid 4 horsemen
• Four horsemen of the apocalypse
serious threats that these patterns pose to relationships = criticism, contempt (most corrosive), defensiveness, withdrawals/stonewalling - (if all 4 are present, he can say with 90% accuracy that they will not be together in 5 years)`
• the attributional styles and accommodations of happy vs. unhappy couples
- Happy couples - attribute good outcomes to each other, bad outcomes to situation, practice accommodation (overlook bad behavior and respond constructively)
- Unhappy couples – attribute good outcomes to situations, bad outcomes to each other
Marriage satisfaction trends
drops in the first 4 years and stabilizes
• How do we know what infants know? - 3 research techinques
preferential looking (if they hold focus on something), habituation (getting used to something after repetitive stimulation), and dishabituation (when something previously habituated is surprising after a change in environment)
- Be familiar with Baillargeon’s research using the violation of expectancy protocol –discussed in book and shown in the videos you saw in class.
- Show babies something not possible or “magic” and see if their attention is held longer- measure looking time
- Used to study infants’ understanding of physical laws, object permanance
- What kinds of core knowledge do infants seem to have about physical properties and mathematics that Piaget’s methods underestimated?
• Seem to understand object permanence – look longer at impossible events, also addition/subtraction (numerical representation), and physical laws (2 objects can’t occupy same space)
- Infant memory
• Even young children show that they are capable of forming implicit memories (e.g., procedural memory, classical conditioning effects) (ex – if foot tied to mobile, 2 weeks later, will shake foot when they see a mobile to try to move it)
the order in which different types of memory develop
implicit (young kids), explicit, semantic, episodic
• Early understanding other’s intentions - what was the study
infants appear to be able to understand intention – habituated to person grabbing ball on left, with teddy on right, swap positions, and when they grab the teddy, look longer at that action than when ball is grabbed
sticky mittens - overall conclusion
physical development facilitates cognitive, sticky mittens allows babies who can’t grab, are still at swiping stage, to put objects closer - this accelerated cognitive development
• Theory of mind - def, tasks that show it
predicting a person’s behavior by correctly identifying their mental state – even infants understand people perform actions for a reason
• young children’s thought found not to be as egocentric as Piaget claimed
• did a study where they had to place a little boy where policemen couldn’t see him - 90% of them could get it right - thought to have worked because more applicable to these kids than the looking at the mountain task
• false belief task
Ex - 3 year old mind - shown juicebox, asks what they think is inside (they say juice) and pull ribbons old of the bottom, ask them what they originally thought was inside (they say juice)
The maturation of what brain structure is important to the development of theory of mind and episodic memory?
• Coincides with development of frontal lobe
- Why can’t young children conserve or understand false beliefs
• They don’t realize they can think things others don’t know, think that what they think, everyone else things – childhood innocence
- The universal characteristics of languages;
- Symbolic language = semantics
* Rules = syntax/grammar
- What is meant by a ‘critical’ or ‘sensitive’ period for development, and what is some evidence that one exists for language?
- Sensitive period - time periods when specific skills develop most easily
- Children tend to learn language at the same rate and in same steps
- Evidence for critical periods – case studies
- Chelsea:
- Discovered to be deaf at age 31
- Acquired small vocabulary, little grammar
- Genie:
- Isolated by parents until 13 years
- Good vocabulary, little grammar
- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmdycJQi4QA
- Isabel
- First language exposure at 6.5 years
- Acquired normal language
- Chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD);
Language-Acquisition Device
• universal grammar, even among invented ones;
• some “built-in” assumptions;
• universal sequence & timing; critical period
surface structure vs. deep structure;
- surface structure – the sound and order of words
* deep structure – implicit meaning of sentences
• evidence of innate language capability
those not given a language create their own
- What are some components of the language acquisition support system (LASS)?
• The Language –Acquisition Support System, aka “motherese” (infant-directed speech) o Exaggerations o Repetitions o Slow pace o Scaffolding of turn-taking •
LAD vs. LASS - which is nature nurture
Whereas LAD is an internal support for language (nature), LASS is an external one (nurture)
- Attachment theory
- Attachment: strong, intimate, emotional connection between people that persists over time and across circumstances. [p. 374]
- Universal human phenomenon
- Attachment figure(s) as secure base for exploration
IWMs
- Child develops “internal working model” or cognitive representation of relationships
- Early relationships with caregivers as a template for future relationships
- The point of the Belsky, Spritz, & Crnic study (on secure and insecure children’s memory about ‘social’ events in a puppet show)
- One way internal working models might work – memory, attention, and attachment history
- Something happens during puppet show, positive or negative
- Attention for pos and neg are the same
- But secure kids remember positive events better, and insecure kids remember negative events better
