exam 3 Flashcards by sophia rahman

gas exchange
communication
olfaction
acid-base balance
BP regulation
also has roles in platelet production, crating pressure gradients for blood/lymph flow, blood filtration, and expulsion of abdominal contents

major functions of respiratory

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upper = nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, + pharynx
lower = larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

anatomical divisions

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passageways for air through terminal bronchioles

conducting

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respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli

respiratory

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_____ ____ uses primary respiratory muscles only for inhalation, exhalation is passive

quiet breathing

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incorporates accessory respiratory muscles

forced breathing

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air will move from higher to lower pressure
to get air to move into the lungs –> increase the volume –> reduce the pressure below that of atmosphere
to get air to move out of the lungs –> decrease the volume –> increase the pressure below that of atmosphere

Boyles law P = 1/V

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to get air to move into the lungs –> _____ the volume –> ______ the pressure below that of atmosphere

increase; reduce

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to get air to move out of the lungs –> _____ the volume –> _____ the pressure below that of atmosphere

decrease; increase

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______ during quiet breathing requires the brain to send signals to diaphragm and external intercostals

inspiration

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____ is a passive process during quiet breathing

expiration

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lungs ___ to the thoracic wall and diaphragm

stick

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elasticity of lungs (recoil to smallest size possible)
surface tension alveolar fluid

forces that pull the lungs inward

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-elasticity chest wall pulls thorax outward and enlarges lungs

forces that pull the lungs outward

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what keeps lungs from separating from thoracic wall

adhesive force pleural fluid

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if air enters the pleural cavity (pneumothorax) –>

collapsed lung

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bronchiole diameter
compliance: how easily that lung expands, as measured by a change in lung volume relative to a given change in pressure

what physical factors affect pulmonary ventilation

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-how easily that lung expands, as measured by a change in lung volume relative to a given change in pressure

lowers compliance requires greater force to fill lungs
factors that affect compliance:
—– connective tissue of lungs
—— level of surfactant production
—— mobility of thoracic cage

compliance

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respiratory system adapts to changing oxygen demands by varying
amount of air per breath (tidal volume, Vt)
number of breaths per minute (respiratory rate)

respiratory system adapts to changing oxygen demands by varying

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about of air moved per minute
calculated as: respiratory rate x tidal volume
measures pulmonary ventilation

respiratory minute volume

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_____ respiratory group is the primary generator of the respiratory rhythm

ventral

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____ respiratory group modifies basic respiratory rhythm

dorsal

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_______ respiratory group gets input from higher brain centers and affects inhalation to exhalation transition

pontine

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respiratory rhythmicity centers of the ____ _____ set the basic and rate respiratory muscle contraction

medulla oblongata

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- central + peripheral

chemoreceptors

____ receptors -- bronchi, bronchioles, visceral pleura

stretch

_____ receptors in walls of lung associate with reflexes and forced breathing

stretch

prevents over expansion of lungs

inflations (Hering-Breuer) reflex

inhibits expiratory centers + and stimulates inspiratory centers during lung deflations

deflation reflex

increases the time air spends in the nasal cavity, helps remove debris and helps odorants reach the olfactory epithelium

turbulence

narrow air passage

nasal meatus

- simple squamous epithelium - thin for gas exchange

alveoli

- simple columnar to simple cuboidal epithelium - maintain tube structure where have less cartilage in smallest diameter tubes

bronchioles

- oropharynx, laryngopharynx, beginning larynx - stratified squamous epithelium

risk mechanical + chemical damage associated with food

-pseudostratified cilated columnar epithelium - sweep mucus away from location so it can be swallowed

nasal cavity, nasopharynx, trachea

___ ____ is areolar connective tissue underneath mucous epithelium

lamina propria

_____ ____ used in lower respiratory tract to maintain open airway, has a little bit of give to it

hyaline cartilage

_____ _____ offers more flexibility/ability to change shape --- see in epiglottis

elastic cartilage

1. provides / maintain an open airway 2. switching mechanism for food and air 3. voice production (houses vocal folds = vocal cords) 4. protect the glottis and trachea entrances

larynx

- pairs of ligament covered by mucous membranes - superior = vestibular folds, help prevent objects from entering glottis - inferior = vocal folds, involved in phonation (sound production; note is different articulation)

larynx

- size + angle of teh main bronchi that branch off the trachea - C-shaped cartilage rings and their orientation -- room for esophagus to expand - tracheal muscle --adjust airflow

trachea

mechanism of debris removal

mucociliary escalator

1. cartilage decreases 2. smooth muscle increases (especially around bronchioles) 3. epithelia no longer -- ciliated -- either simple columnar or cuboidal

patterns as bronchi continue branching and bronchioles arise

where in the respiratory tract would you expect to find cilated epithelium

- upper respiratory tract - trachea - larynx

what would the consequence of smoking be for respiratory system function

- obstructed airflow - smoker's cough --> need to clear mucus

do you think the effect of smoking on the ciliated epithelia would be permanent why or why not

Chronic, long-term smoking causes irreversible damage through metaplasia, where ciliated epithelium is replaced by non-ciliated squamous cells (squamous metaplasia)

alveolar pores help keep air pressure equal throughout ____

alveoli

blood-air consists of 2 layers (both simple squamous epithelia) and shared basement membrane

- pneumocyte type 1 & 2 - alveolar macrophages

uses primary respiratory muscles only inhalation, exhalation is passive

quiet breathing (eupnea)

incorporates accessory respiratory muscles

forced breathing

inspiration (inhalation) during quiet breathing requires the brain to send signals to _____ and external intercostals

diaphragm

______ is a passive process during quiet breathing

expiration (exhalation)

how would paralysis of the diaphragm affect the volume and pressure changes in the thoracic cavity

reduces the thoracic cavity changes impairing pressure dynamics

how would paralysis of the diaphragm impact the amount of air that can be inhaled during quiet breathing

decreases

individuals with phrenic nerve injuries may experience low energy levels, lethargy, and blue tinged lips or fingers

phrenic nerve injury impairs diaphragm function, reducing o2 intake and causing low energy, lethargy, and cyanosis due to insufficient o2 in the blood

vestibular folds, help prevent objects from entering the glottis

superior

vocal folds, involved in phonation (sound production not is different than articulation)

inferior

at the air-water interface the ant of gas that dissolves in water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure

henry's law

O2 loading and CO2 unloading will involve ____

RBCs

efficiency of Henry's law will depend on how long ____ are in capillaries

RBCs

at rest, a blood cell spends more time in pulmonary ___ than it needs to become oxygenated --> rate of flow can increase without compromising oxygenation

capillary

efficiency of exchange is I,pacted by _____ _____ (steeper = faster diffusion)

concentration gradient

efficiency of exchange is impacted by ____ + ______ across which gas exchange occurs

distance + SA

________ coupling matches air flow and blood flow locally to optimize gas exchange

ventilation-perfusions

1. partial pressure of gas in inspired air vs blood determines direction, rat e of diffusion 2. gases will diffuse until equilibrium is reached --> creates a challenge b/c gases vary in solubility, dissolving gases in plasma alone in not enough to meet needs N2 has very limited solubility - issue in decompression sickness b/c changes in pressure affects its solubility

diffusion of gases at the alveoli is a bit more complicated

- binding. of substances to hemoglobin changes its 3D structure - change ibn structure changes hemoglobin's affinity for O2 -- low affinity = give up more o2 readily --- high affinity = gives up less 2 - amt of o2 bound affects CO2 binding

solution to the equilibrium and solubility issue: RBCs and hemoglobin

% of heme units bound to O2

hemoglobin saturation

1. Po2 of blood 2. blood pH 3. temp 4. metabolic activity within RBCs (BPG production)

factors affecting hemoglobin saturation

O2 satiation is not a ____ line because of affinity hemoglobin for O2 changes with O2 saturation

straight

large change o2 partial pressure = ___ effect on o2 of hemoglobin

small

large change partial pressure o2 = large amt of o2 released

systemic tissues have lower partial pressure of O2

if you hyperventilate does that increase or decrease pH

increases

ingestion and mastication

oral cavity

swallowing

pharynx + esophagus

storage, mixing, digestion

stomach

storage, elimination

large intestine

1. ingestion 2. digestion involves mechanical breakdown -- teeth, tongue, churning of stomach, segmentation (involves intestinal wall) 2b. propulsion -- swallowing, peristalsis 3. digestion and its regulation involves secretions 4. chemical digestion -- hydrolysis rxns, enzymes, bile, HCL 5. absorption - movement substances form lumen across epithelium, into blood or lymph 6. defecation -- elimination of undigested materials and other wastes as feces * absorption water and consolidating indigestible residue into feces called compaction

digestion

absorption water and consolidating indigestible residue into feces

compaction

many digestive organs are suspended by ______

mesenteries

1. sensory analysis of food 2. mechanical digestion 3. lubrication 4. begin chemical digestion 5. initiate swallowing

oral cavity

1. mechanical digestion 2. manipulation of food 3. initiate swallowing 4. sensory analysis 5. secretion of muffins and lingual lipase 6. role in articulation (speech)

digestive functions associated with the tongue

1. mechanical digestion 2. manipulation of food 3. initiate swallowing 4. sensory analysis 5. secretion of mucin and lingual lipase 6. role in articulation

tongue functions

teeth (dentition) perform mechanical digestion through _____

mastication

cell free secretion

enamel

living tissue

dentin + cement

pulp = loose connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, + nerves

pulp calvity

exocrine glands with serous and or mucous cells

salivary glands

1. cleanse the mouth 2. control oral bacterial population/protection 3. maintain oral pH near neutral 4. dissolve food chemicals (taste) 5. moisten food to help form bolus 6. begin digestion of carbs

salivary

tongue forms a food bolus ends pushes into laryngopharynx

oral phase ***ONLY VOLUNTARY PHASE

the palate, tongue, vocal cords and epiglottis block the oral and nasal cavities and airway while pharyngeal constrictors push the bolus into the esophagus

pharyngeal phase

peristalsis drives the bolus downwards, and relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter admits it into the stomach

esophageal phase

___ has a layer of circular muscles called pharyngeal constrictors that force food downward during swallowing

pharynx

nerve plexuses found in the _____ _layer and btwn circular and longitudinal smooth muscle Mayers

submucosal

____ folds allows for expansion

longitudinal

____ contains mucus glands that aid bolus passage

submucosa

_____ is moved using peristalsis

bolus

upper ____ ____ us formed by pharyngeal constrictors

esophageal sphincter

where esophagus joins stomach there are mucus secreting cells, epithelium transitions to ___ ____

simple columnar

opening into stomach

cardiac orifice

1. temporary storage of good 2. mechanical digestion and propulsion 3. chemical digestion (start protein digestion) -- HCL (acid) and pepsin helps turn bolus into chyme; HCL also aids in killing bacteria

key functions of stomach

helps turn bolus into chyme

pepsin

peristaltic waves move form fungus toward the pylorus

propulsion

the most vigorous peristalsis and mixing action occur close to the pylorus; pyloric end of the stomach acts as a pump that delivers small amounts of chyme into duodenum

grinding

the peristaltic wave closes the pyloric wave, forcing most of the contents of the pylorus backward into the stomach

retropulsion

require for vitamin B12 absorption

intrinsic factor

convert persin in stomach

pepsinogen

- activastes enzymes breaks up connective tissues and cell walls converts iron to form that can be absorbed - destroys pathogens

HCL

segmentation

mechanical digestion

enzymes from pancreas, brush border enzymes, bile

chemical digestion

intentsial juices, alkaline mucus

secretion

greatest in jejunum

absorption

weak, localized waves help to slolymove chute along larger waves to move devbreis tworawrd the large intestine periodically between meals

peristalsis

___ ____ contain alkaline mucus and is largely carrier guild for absorbing nutrients from chyme; it gets mixed with pancreatic juice and bile

intestinal juices

efficiency of processes is affected by ____ in the small intestines, ____ ___, an d missing of contents

time; surface area; mixing

- length - permanent circular folds - villi + microvilli - peristalsis processed more slowly/is weaker - segmenting helps with mixing

efficiently of processes

- protect against damage from the acidic pH of the entering chyme - mix in secretions from accessory organs (pancreatic juice, bile) - fewer circular folds, smaller villi

duodenum

-where most of the digestion and absorption occurs - prominent circular folds and villi

jejunum

- major absorptive products are vitamin b12 + bile - peyer's patches abundant where connects to large intestine

ileum

secretions of accessory organs that aid digestion are added to the small intestine at the ______

duodenum

___ aides in digestion and absorption of fats -mainly water - ions, bilirubin, cholesterol, lipids - bile salts (cholesterol derived) --> emulsify lipids

bile

_____ juice consists of an alkaline fluid (due to bicarbonate, HCO3) and digestive enzymes

pancreatic

1. metabolic 2. hematological -- plasma protein, clotting factors 3. digestive (bile production and secretion)

liver functions

______ stores + concentrates bile

gallbladder

____ salts emulsify lipids to increase the surface area exposed to pancreatic lipase

bile

1. liver secretes bile continuously about 1 L per day 2. bile becomes more concentrated the longer it remains in the gallbladder 3. release of CCK but the duodenum triggers dilation of the hepatopancreatic sphincter and contraction of the gallbladder. this ejects bile into the duodenum through the duodenal ampulla 4. in the lumen of the digestive tract, bile salts break the lipid droplets apart by emulsification

physiology of gallbladder

____ secretes pancreatic juice that contains digestive enzymes and bicarbonate

pancreas

exocrine(digestive) functions

pancreatic acini

endocrine functions (pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon)

pancreatic islets

most pancreatic enzymes are secreted in an ___ form --- mechanism of activation differs from stomach

inactive

-alpha amylase (carbs) - lipases - proteases - nucleases

pancreatic enzymes

cycling bille salts between liver and small intestines

enterohepatic circulation

bile salts aids in absorption of ____ and then gets recycled

lipids

water absorption and reabsorption is based on ____

osmosis

reabsorption of: - water - nutrients - bile salts -organic wastes - vitamin + toxins produced by bacteria - compaction of intestinal contents into feces -storage of fecal material prior to defection

functions of the large intestines

- synthesize vitamins: vitamin K, B complex vitamins - fermentation: breakdown of otherwise undigestible carb, any proteins that enter the large intestines; leads to gas (flatus) production - characteristics of feces are altered due to bacterial activity - beneficial bacteria can outcompete and helps suppress harmful bacteria

contributions of the intestinal microbiome

- haustra - Taniae coli -motility: haustral movements (segmentation) and mass movements (mass peristalsis)

large intestine segments: cecum, colon, rectum

-no circular folds, villi, or brush border - thicker mucosa with abundant crypt, large number of goblet cells - mucus aids in passage of feces, protection against bacteria

histology of the large intestine

- transition back to stratified squamous epithelium - recesses btw anal column exude mucus when compressed by feces - stretching go the rectal wall initiates the defecation reflex

rectum

water absorption happens where mostly

small intestine NOT large intestine so removal would just decrease a bit of water absorption