Exam 3

Question 1

Criteria for abnormal behavior

Answer 1

Abnormal behavior is any behavior that deviates from what is considered normal. There are four general criteria that psychologists use to identify abnormal behavior: violation of social norms, statistical rarity, personal distress, and maladaptive behavior.

Question 2

Models of psychopathology

Answer 2

• Medical model
• Bio-Psycho-Social Model
• Psychoanalytic Model
• Behavioral Model

Question 3

Medical model

Answer 3

The medical model of psychopathology is a framework that views mental illness as a disease caused by physical or organic problems in the brain, genetics, neurotransmitters, or other biological factors.

Examples: Depression and anxiety, Traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer’s disease, and Down’s syndrome

Question 4

Bio-Psycho-Social model

Answer 4

The BPS model incorporates interactions between biological, psychological, and social factors to help determine why an individual might suffer from a disorder.

Examples: Depression, Chronic pain, or Schizophrenia

Question 5

Psychoanalytic model

Answer 5

This model views mental disorders as arising from unconscious conflicts and repressed memories, primarily stemming from early childhood experiences, which manifest as symptoms in conscious behavior.

Example: a person developing an intense, irrational fear of spiders as an adult due to an unconscious childhood trauma where they were bitten by a spider, causing them to associate spiders with extreme anxiety, even though they may not consciously remember the incident

Question 6

Behavioral model

Answer 6

Behavioral model is a model of abnormal psychology that assumes that psychological issues are caused by learned behaviors and environmental factors

Example: the development of a phobia through classical conditioning

Question 7

Mythical Madness

Answer 7

“Mythical Madness” in the context of psychopathology refers to the ancient belief that mental illness was caused by supernatural forces, like possession by demons or the wrath of gods

Question 8

Psychopathology

Answer 8

Psychopathology is the study of mental illness. It includes the signs and symptoms of all mental disorders.
- Major disorders categories
- Universal/peripheral (cultural) specifics
- Culture syndromes & examples

Question 9

Major disorders categories

Answer 9

• anxiety
• mood (depression)
• psychoticism (schizophrenia)

Question 10

Anxiety

Answer 10

Anxiety is experienced across all cultures, but the way it is expressed, perceived, and understood can vary significantly depending on cultural norms, with some cultures tending to manifest anxiety more through psychological symptoms like worry, while others may express it primarily through physical symptoms like headaches or stomach upset.

• Western cultures might see anxiety as more psychological (fear, worry)
• Eastern cultures may experience it more physically (dizziness, stomach issues)
• Collectivist cultures might experience anxiety related to group harmony and social expectations
• Individualistic cultures might focus on personal achievement and anxieties related to individual performance
• Asian cultures: Often report more physical symptoms like headaches, fatigue, and stomach discomfort when experiencing anxiety.
• Mediterranean cultures: May express anxiety through somatic complaints and strong emotional reactions.
• Indigenous cultures: Anxiety may be linked to spiritual beliefs and ancestral spirits.

Question 11

Depression

Answer 11

Depression can manifest differently across cultures, including in how symptoms are expressed, the level of stigma, and how people seek care.

• Universal Symptoms: Dysphoria, Anxiety, Tension, Low Energy/Concentration
• West … Guilt
• Latino & Mediterranean Countries … Headaches
• Asian Countries … Weakness, Imbalance, Fatigue
• Middle East … Problems of the “Heart”

Question 12

Schizophrenia (1% of World Population)

Answer 12

Schizo = Split … Phrenum = Mind

Individuals from different societies often describing their symptoms in ways influenced by their local beliefs and social norms, including the nature of voices heard being more benign in some cultures compared to others.

For example, in some non-Western cultures, voices may be perceived as spiritual or ancestral guidance rather than purely negative entities as in Western societies.

• Africa and India: Individuals may report hearing voices that are more familiar, benevolent, or ancestral in nature compared to Western experiences.
• East Asian cultures: Delusions of guilt or shame related to family honor may be more prominent.
• Indigenous cultures: Some cultures may interpret psychotic symptoms as a sign of spiritual connection or a shamanistic ability.

Question 13

Personality disorders

Question 14

Father of Western psychotherapy

Answer 14

Sigmund Freud

Question 15

Indigenous healing practice

Answer 15

• Religion & Spirituality
• Indigenous healing practices are often holistic and informal, and they emphasize interdependence in healing. They can be effective for some populations, and they can lead to new treatments for illnesses.

Examples:
- Japanese Naikan Therapy: psychotherapeutic method that involves self-reflection and is intended to promote personal growth, self-awareness, and gratitude
- African Oracle: Spirit World

Question 16

A-B-C model of attitudes

Answer 16

a psychological framework that describes an attitude as composed of three components:
- Affect (feelings)
- Behavior (actions)
- Cognition (thoughts/beliefs)

Question 17

Cognitive dissonance

Answer 17

• Inconsistency of Att/Beliefs/Beh’s
• Cognitive dissonance is the discomfort a person feels when their behavior does not align with their values or beliefs.

Examples:
- Western: Work, Achievement, Efficiency, Materialism

• Non-Western: Tradition, Authority, Stability

Question 18

Cultural value dimensions (Schwartz et al., 2001)

Answer 18

• Conservatism (equality) vs. Autonomy:
  This dimension focuses on the relationship between the individual and the group, with Conservatism indicating a strong emphasis on social cohesion, tradition, and fulfilling group expectations, while “autonomy” prioritizes individual independence and pursuing personal goals.
• Hierarchy vs. Egalitarianism:
  This dimension concerns power distribution within a society, with “hierarchy” signifying acceptance of unequal power structures and deference to authority figures, while “egalitarianism” promotes the idea of equal rights and social justice for all.
• Harmony vs. Mastery:
  This dimension relates to how people interact with their environment, with “mastery” emphasizing actively shaping and controlling one’s surroundings to achieve personal goals, while “harmony” focuses on living in balance with nature and maintaining social harmony

Question 19

Cultural stereotype

Answer 19

Cultural stereotypes are oversimplified ideas, beliefs, or images used to describe or represent a particular culture or group of people. They are often based on a narrow understanding of a culture and are often used to make assumptions about individuals and groups of people.

Question 20

Characteristics of groups

Answer 20

• Norms
• Roles
• Sanctions
• Social facilitation
• Social loafing

Question 21

Social facilitation

Answer 21

Psychological theory that describes how the presence of others can improve a person’s performance on a task. This effect can occur when others are physically present, or when their presence is implied, imagined, or digital.

Examples :
- A musician who performs better in front of an audience
- A student who does better work at the library than at home

Question 22

Social loafing

Answer 22

Social psychology phenomenon where people put in less effort when working in a group than they would individually. It’s often a reason why groups are less productive than the sum of their members’ individual efforts.

Question 23

Social Influence

Answer 23

Types of Social Influence … [Pressure to Change]
- Compliance: (+) Request … (-) Authority
Changing your opinion to be accepted by others

• Obedience: (+) Request … (+) Authority
  Changing your behavior based on a request from a person of power
• Conformity: (-) Request … (-) Authority
  Changing your behavior based on a direct request

Question 24

Cultural greetings

Answer 24

Greetings vary across cultures and are a fundamental part of social etiquette. They are a way to acknowledge others and start communication or social interaction.

Question 25

Eye contact across culture

Answer 25

some societies considering direct eye contact as a sign of respect and engagement, while others view it as aggressive or disrespectful, often depending on factors like social hierarchy and gender dynamics

• Western cultures, maintaining eye contact is generally seen as positive
• Asian cultures, avoiding eye contact with superiors is considered polite.

Question 26

Asch studies

Answer 26

The experiments revealed the degree to which a person’s own opinions are influenced by those of a group.

Asch found that people were willing to ignore reality and give an incorrect answer in order to conform to the rest of the group.

Question 27

Milgram studies

Answer 27

The Milgram studies were a series of social psychology experiments conducted by Yale psychologist Stanley Milgram in 1961 and 1962. The experiments measured how far people would go to obey an authority figure, even if it meant hurting others. The studies are considered one of the most well-known social psychology studies of the 20th century.

• Milgram concluded that people obey authority out of fear or a desire to appear cooperative. He also found that people were more likely to obey when the authority figure was close by or if they felt they could pass on responsibility.

Question 28

Cross-cultural studies on conformity

Answer 28

Cross-cultural studies on conformity generally show that people from collectivist cultures tend to exhibit higher levels of conformity compared to those from individualistic cultures

• Collectivists higher level of conformity

Question 29

Religion defined

Answer 29

Process of Re-connecting

Question 30

Religion vs spirituality

Answer 30

Religion has a broader set of goals than spirituality, and serves other functions in addition to facilitating spirituality. Spirituality focuses on finding the sacred, while religion has other psychological, social, and physical purposes.

Religion = psychological, social, and physical purposes

Spirituality = focuses on finding the sacred

Question 31

Intrinsic/extrinsic religious orientation

Answer 31

• Intrinsic
  People with an intrinsic religious orientation view their religion as an end in itself, central to their identity, and a driving force in their lives. They tend to internalize their religion’s beliefs and attitudes, and sincerely believe in them.
• Extrinsic
  People with an extrinsic religious orientation view their religion as a means to achieve personal or social goals. They may not be as committed to religious principles, and may use their religion for a sense of community, social status, or material gain.

Question 32

Major world religions

Answer 32

Christianity – 2.1 billion (33%)
Islam – 1.5 billion (22%)
Hinduism – 900 million (14%)
Buddhism – 376 million (6%)
Chinese Traditional Religion – 394 million (6%)
African Traditional Religion – 100 million (3%)
Judaism – 14 million
Shinto – 4 million

Question 33

Religion’s relation to culture

Answer 33

Culture – dynamic system of rules involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors that is communicated across generations and is relatively stable

Religion – basis for cultural attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, & behaviors

Question 34

Glock’s deprivation theory of religion

Answer 34

Glock’s deprivation theory of religion suggests that people are more likely to turn to religion when they experience various forms of deprivation, including economic, social, psychological, or physical, and that different types of deprivation lead to different forms of religious participation, such as joining sects or churches depending on the specific need being addressed; essentially, religion can provide a sense of comfort and meaning when people feel deprived in other areas of life.

Examples:
Economic => “Rich in Jesus”
Social => “SS Teacher, Usher, Deacon, Imam”
Organismic => “God will heal or give grace”
Ethical => “People need to get in church and live right”
Psychic => “I’m part of the family”

Question 35

Psychological theories/approaches to religion

Answer 35

• Psychoanalytic Approach (Freud):
  Views religion as a form of “illusory wish fulfillment” stemming from childhood anxieties and the desire for a powerful father figure (God) to protect them; essentially seeing religion as a neurotic coping mechanism.
• Humanistic Psychology (Maslow, Frankl):
  Focuses on the positive aspects of religion, seeing it as a means to achieve self-actualization and find meaning in life, particularly through the pursuit of “transcendent experiences”.
• Cognitive Psychology:
  Examines how people process religious information, including the role of cognitive biases and schemas in shaping religious beliefs.