Exam 2 Flashcards
Animal communication
Animal communication is the process by which animals send information to each other, which can affect the behavior of the receiver. It’s a growing area of study in psychology, animal behavior, sociology, and other disciplines.
Nature/Nurture debate on language
The nature vs. nurture debate on language is about whether genetics or environmental factors are more important in the development of language skills:
Nature
The idea that language ability is innate and part of the human experience. This is known as the nativist theory, and it suggests that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) in their brain.
Nurture
The idea that language ability is determined by the environment. This is the behaviorist perspective, which suggests that language is acquired through conditioning, such as association, imitation, and reinforcement.
Whorf’s hypothesis
A theory that states that the language a person speaks influences how they think about reality. The hypothesis is based on the idea that different languages have different structures, and that these structures lead to different ways of viewing the world.
Linguistic relativity/determinism
Linguistic relativism and linguistic determinism are both theories that explore the relationship between language and thought:
Linguistic determinism
The idea that language determines thought and limits human knowledge. It’s also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, named after linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf. Linguistic determinism has been largely discredited by studies and is no longer accepted in linguistics and cognitive science.
Linguistic relativism
The idea that language influences thought, but doesn’t determine it. It’s considered the “weak” version of linguistic determinism. Linguistic relativism suggests that languages can express the same concept in different ways.
Lakoff (1975) language study findings
In her 1975 book Language and Woman’s Place, linguist Robin Lakoff’s study of gendered language found that women’s language is “weaker” and more uncertain than men’s language
Language/color studies
The study shows that the language we use can actively influence our perception of colors
Number label studies
Egocentric versus non-egocentric language
Egocentric language is speech that is self-centered and doesn’t consider the perspective of others, while non-egocentric language is more objective and considers the feelings and needs of others:
Egocentric language
Children often use egocentric speech when they are playing or involved in an activity. For example, a child might say “Now, I’ll give my baby some milk” while playing with a doll. Egocentric language is a characteristic of the egocentric stage of development, where children have difficulty understanding the thoughts and feelings of others.
Non-egocentric language
Non-egocentric language is more objective and considers the feelings and needs of others. For example, “It is raining today. I notice I feel sad when it rains” is a non-judgmental statement that describes what’s happening
Bilingual speakers and thinking
Bilingual speakers may have cognitive advantages over monolingual speakers
Definition of intelligence
The ability to learn from and adapt to new situations, and use that knowledge to create a desired outcome
Theories of intelligences (Spearman,
Sternburg, Gardner)
Charles Spearman proposed a single “general intelligence factor” (g-factor)
Robert Sternberg developed a “triarchic theory” with analytical, creative, and practical intelligences
Howard Gardner’s theory suggests multiple intelligences like linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, and more, meaning people can excel in different areas of intelligence rather than just one general ability.
Measurement of intelligence & criticisms
Many critics have argued that IQ tests ignore or underestimate the contribution of factors like emotion, social skills, motivation or even morality. However, the response to this is that g is only a measure of cognitive ability, and so it cannot be judged as invalid for excluding non-cognitive abilities.
Factors affecting intelligence scores
Biological/genetic and Environmental
Both biological/genetic factors and environmental influences significantly impact intelligence scores, with research suggesting that intelligence is a complex interaction between the two, meaning genetics provide a potential for intelligence while the environment determines how much of that potential is realized; factors like family environment, education, nutrition, and exposure to stimulating experiences all play a role in shaping cognitive abilities.
Expert explanations for intellectual development (Nature/Nurture)
The debate over whether nature or nurture is more important in intellectual development is outdated, as both play key roles. The scientific consensus is that intelligence is the result of a complex interplay between genes and environment over development
Formal/informal reasoning
Informal reasoning is often used outside of the classroom, when the formal academic structure to guide reasoning is no longer present. For example, an informal argument might be “I did the dishes last night” to encourage a roommate to do them tonight.
Cognitive field types
Attention: How we process information while filtering out irrelevant details
Language acquisition: How we learn to read, write, and express ourselves
Memory: How we store and recall information
Problem-solving: How we approach and solve problems
Speech perception: How we process what others are saying
Visual perception: How we see the world around us
Cross-cultural differences in math abilities
Cross-cultural studies have shown significant differences in mathematical abilities across various populations, with East Asian countries often demonstrating higher performance in standardized math tests compared to Western nations
Basic emotions
Anger
Disgust
Fear
Happiness
Sadness
Surprise
Methods for researching emotions
Psychological. Emotions are associated with physiological responses that can be objectively measured, such as changes in heart rate, skin conductance, or brain activity.
Plutchik research on emotion
Robert Plutchik’s research on emotion is most well-known for his “Wheel of Emotions” model, which proposes that there are eight primary emotions - joy, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, anticipation, trust, and disgust - that act as the foundation for all other emotions, and can be combined to create more complex feelings depending on their intensity and proximity on the wheel
Theories of emotion
James-Lange
Schachter and Singe
James-Lange: Emotions are Universal
Seeing a bear in the woods causes your heart to race, which then leads to the feeling of fear.
Schachter-Singer: Emotions are Culture-specific
Seeing a bear in the woods causes your heart to race, but you then assess the situation and realize it’s a harmless stuffed bear, leading to a feeling of relief rather than fear.
Cultural display rules
Cultural display rules are informal social norms that dictate how people should express themselves in different social contexts. They are learned early in life and help maintain social order by establishing expected behaviors.
Different cultures can have different display rules. For example, in the United States, people often express negative emotions in the presence of others, while in Japan, people usually only express negative emotions when alone.
Research supporting universal emotion
Paul Ekman’s studies
Ekman’s studies found that people from different Western and Eastern cultures agreed on the emotional labels for facial expressions. He identified six basic emotions that he believed were universally experienced: happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, surprise, and fear.
Research supporting culture-specific emotion
Research consistently demonstrates that culture significantly influences how people experience and express emotions, supporting the concept of culture-specific emotions, with key findings including: variations in emotion recognition based on cultural context, differences in emotional display rules, and cultural variations in the interpretation of facial expressions, particularly when subtle or nuanced emotions are involved; highlighting that while some basic emotions might be universally recognized, their intensity and expression are heavily shaped by cultural norms.
