Exam 2

Question 1

Animal communication

Answer 1

Animal communication is the process by which animals send information to each other, which can affect the behavior of the receiver. It’s a growing area of study in psychology, animal behavior, sociology, and other disciplines.

Question 2

Nature/Nurture debate on language

Answer 2

The nature vs. nurture debate on language is about whether genetics or environmental factors are more important in the development of language skills:
Nature
The idea that language ability is innate and part of the human experience. This is known as the nativist theory, and it suggests that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) in their brain.
Nurture
The idea that language ability is determined by the environment. This is the behaviorist perspective, which suggests that language is acquired through conditioning, such as association, imitation, and reinforcement.

Question 3

Whorf’s hypothesis

Answer 3

A theory that states that the language a person speaks influences how they think about reality. The hypothesis is based on the idea that different languages have different structures, and that these structures lead to different ways of viewing the world.

Question 4

Linguistic relativity/determinism

Answer 4

Linguistic relativism and linguistic determinism are both theories that explore the relationship between language and thought:

Linguistic determinism
The idea that language determines thought and limits human knowledge. It’s also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, named after linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf. Linguistic determinism has been largely discredited by studies and is no longer accepted in linguistics and cognitive science.

Linguistic relativism
The idea that language influences thought, but doesn’t determine it. It’s considered the “weak” version of linguistic determinism. Linguistic relativism suggests that languages can express the same concept in different ways.

Question 5

Lakoff (1975) language study findings

Answer 5

In her 1975 book Language and Woman’s Place, linguist Robin Lakoff’s study of gendered language found that women’s language is “weaker” and more uncertain than men’s language

Question 6

Language/color studies

Answer 6

The study shows that the language we use can actively influence our perception of colors

Question 7

Number label studies

Question 8

Egocentric versus non-egocentric language

Answer 8

Egocentric language is speech that is self-centered and doesn’t consider the perspective of others, while non-egocentric language is more objective and considers the feelings and needs of others:

Egocentric language
Children often use egocentric speech when they are playing or involved in an activity. For example, a child might say “Now, I’ll give my baby some milk” while playing with a doll. Egocentric language is a characteristic of the egocentric stage of development, where children have difficulty understanding the thoughts and feelings of others.

Non-egocentric language
Non-egocentric language is more objective and considers the feelings and needs of others. For example, “It is raining today. I notice I feel sad when it rains” is a non-judgmental statement that describes what’s happening

Question 9

Bilingual speakers and thinking

Answer 9

Bilingual speakers may have cognitive advantages over monolingual speakers

Question 10

Definition of intelligence

Answer 10

The ability to learn from and adapt to new situations, and use that knowledge to create a desired outcome

Question 11

Theories of intelligences (Spearman,
Sternburg, Gardner)

Answer 11

Charles Spearman proposed a single “general intelligence factor” (g-factor)

Robert Sternberg developed a “triarchic theory” with analytical, creative, and practical intelligences

Howard Gardner’s theory suggests multiple intelligences like linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, and more, meaning people can excel in different areas of intelligence rather than just one general ability.

Question 12

Measurement of intelligence & criticisms

Answer 12

Many critics have argued that IQ tests ignore or underestimate the contribution of factors like emotion, social skills, motivation or even morality. However, the response to this is that g is only a measure of cognitive ability, and so it cannot be judged as invalid for excluding non-cognitive abilities.

Question 13

Factors affecting intelligence scores

Biological/genetic and Environmental

Answer 13

Both biological/genetic factors and environmental influences significantly impact intelligence scores, with research suggesting that intelligence is a complex interaction between the two, meaning genetics provide a potential for intelligence while the environment determines how much of that potential is realized; factors like family environment, education, nutrition, and exposure to stimulating experiences all play a role in shaping cognitive abilities.

Question 14

Expert explanations for intellectual development (Nature/Nurture)

Answer 14

The debate over whether nature or nurture is more important in intellectual development is outdated, as both play key roles. The scientific consensus is that intelligence is the result of a complex interplay between genes and environment over development

Question 15

Formal/informal reasoning

Answer 15

Informal reasoning is often used outside of the classroom, when the formal academic structure to guide reasoning is no longer present. For example, an informal argument might be “I did the dishes last night” to encourage a roommate to do them tonight.

Question 16

Cognitive field types

Answer 16

Attention: How we process information while filtering out irrelevant details
Language acquisition: How we learn to read, write, and express ourselves
Memory: How we store and recall information
Problem-solving: How we approach and solve problems
Speech perception: How we process what others are saying
Visual perception: How we see the world around us

Question 17

Cross-cultural differences in math abilities

Answer 17

Cross-cultural studies have shown significant differences in mathematical abilities across various populations, with East Asian countries often demonstrating higher performance in standardized math tests compared to Western nations

Question 18

Basic emotions

Answer 18

Anger
Disgust
Fear
Happiness
Sadness
Surprise

Question 19

Methods for researching emotions

Answer 19

Psychological. Emotions are associated with physiological responses that can be objectively measured, such as changes in heart rate, skin conductance, or brain activity.

Question 20

Plutchik research on emotion

Answer 20

Robert Plutchik’s research on emotion is most well-known for his “Wheel of Emotions” model, which proposes that there are eight primary emotions - joy, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, anticipation, trust, and disgust - that act as the foundation for all other emotions, and can be combined to create more complex feelings depending on their intensity and proximity on the wheel

Question 21

Theories of emotion
James-Lange
Schachter and Singe

Answer 21

James-Lange: Emotions are Universal
Seeing a bear in the woods causes your heart to race, which then leads to the feeling of fear.

Schachter-Singer: Emotions are Culture-specific
Seeing a bear in the woods causes your heart to race, but you then assess the situation and realize it’s a harmless stuffed bear, leading to a feeling of relief rather than fear.

Question 22

Cultural display rules

Answer 22

Cultural display rules are informal social norms that dictate how people should express themselves in different social contexts. They are learned early in life and help maintain social order by establishing expected behaviors.

Different cultures can have different display rules. For example, in the United States, people often express negative emotions in the presence of others, while in Japan, people usually only express negative emotions when alone.

Question 23

Research supporting universal emotion

Answer 23

Paul Ekman’s studies
Ekman’s studies found that people from different Western and Eastern cultures agreed on the emotional labels for facial expressions. He identified six basic emotions that he believed were universally experienced: happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, surprise, and fear.

Question 24

Research supporting culture-specific emotion

Answer 24

Research consistently demonstrates that culture significantly influences how people experience and express emotions, supporting the concept of culture-specific emotions, with key findings including: variations in emotion recognition based on cultural context, differences in emotional display rules, and cultural variations in the interpretation of facial expressions, particularly when subtle or nuanced emotions are involved; highlighting that while some basic emotions might be universally recognized, their intensity and expression are heavily shaped by cultural norms.

Question 25

Motivation definition

Answer 25

Motivation is the reason or reasons why a person behaves or acts in a certain way.

Question 26

Motivation theories

Drive-Reduction => Homeostasis

Psychoanalytic … [Unconscious]

Humanistic … [Maslow]

Answer 26

The Evolutionary Theory of Motivation is closely related to Darwin’s theory of natural selection because it suggests that our motivational drives and behaviors have evolved to serve our survival and reproductive needs, much like how traits are selected for in the process of evolution.

Psychoanalytic theory of motivation is a theory that suggests that unconscious psychological forces, such as hidden desires and motives, drive a person’s behavior. (Freudian motivation theory is often used in sales and marketing to understand consumer motivations.)

While Maslow’s theory is widely used, it has some criticisms and lacks conclusive supporting evidence. For example, some say that the theory assumes that lower-level needs must be completely satisfied before moving on to higher-level needs, but there’s evidence that levels can overlap. Others say that people can experience higher-level motivation at any time.

Question 27

Tradition/Non-tradition views of sex

Question 28

Mate selection

Answer 28

Reproduction
Similar Courting/Flirtation Patterns
Age Factor … ♂ > ♀
Attraction
♂ => Good Looks
♀ => Good Resources
Ranked Selection Characteristics (Buss, 1994)
Kind & Understanding
Intelligent
Exciting Personality
Healthy
Religious

Question 29

Achievement motivation

Answer 29

In psychology, achievement motivation is the drive to succeed, work toward high performance, and accomplish goals:

The need for excellence and accomplishment, even without external rewards

Question 30

Task/ego motivation

Answer 30

Task and ego motivation are two types of achievement goal orientations that differ in how people define success:

Task motivation
Also known as learning or mastery, people with a task orientation define success in terms of improving their skills. They feel successful when they learn something new and apply effort.

Ego motivation
Also known as performance, people with an ego orientation define success in terms of being superior to their competitors. They derive a significant portion of their identity from feeling superior through beating others.

Question 31

Food preferences/taboos

Answer 31

Arab Bedouins … Camel Eye
Europeans & Asians … Beef Tongue
Vietnam … Dog
Muslims & Jews … No Pork
Hindu … No Beef

Question 32

Developmental psychology

Answer 32

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how people change and grow throughout their lives. It’s concerned with how people’s physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and intellectual development changes across the lifespan.

Question 33

Germinal/embryonic/fetal stages of
prenatal development

Answer 33

Germinal stage
This stage begins with conception, when the sperm and egg combine to form a zygote. The zygote divides and implants into the uterine wall. The germinal stage lasts about 14 days.

Embryonic stage
This stage begins after the blastocyst implants in the uterine wall and lasts about eight weeks. During this stage, the embryo’s cells differentiate and take on different functions. The neural tube forms, which will eventually become the brain and spinal cord. The embryo is most vulnerable to damage from harmful substances during this stage.

Fetal stage
This stage begins at the end of the embryonic period and lasts until birth. The fetus’s organs, tissues, and body grow dramatically in size. The fetus’s brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks 16 to 28.

Question 34

Childbirthing practices

Answer 34

Childbirth practices can vary depending on cultural, social, and political factors. Some practices that may help a woman feel supported and in control during labor.

Question 35

Temperaments (& research)

Answer 35

Temperament is a child’s behavioral and emotional style, and research in psychology has shown that it can be an important factor in how a child interacts with others and responds to new situations.

According to Kagan, (conventionally): temperament refers to stable behavioral and emotional reactions that appear early and are influenced in part by genetic constitution.

Question 36

Piaget’s cognitive theory & cross-cultural research

Answer 36

When it comes to cross-cultural research, Piaget’s cognitive theory suggests that while the sequence of cognitive development stages may be universal, the rate at which children progress through these stages can vary significantly based on cultural influences and learning experiences within different societies.

Task Bias: Some argue that traditional Piagetian tasks used in cross-cultural studies might be biased towards Western cultural norms, potentially leading to inaccurate interpretations of cognitive abilities in other cultures.

Stages
Sensorimotor (0-2) … [obj perm]
Preoperational (2-7) … [symb, egocent’m, anim’m]
Concrete Op (7-11) … [classification, conservation]
Formal Operations (11 =>) … [hypothesizing]

Question 37

Kohlberg’s stages of moral
Development

Answer 37

Kohlberg was interested not in whether the boys judged the action right or wrong but in the reasons for the decision. He found that these reasons tended to change as the children got older. Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

Preconventional
Stage 1 – Avoidance of Punishment
Stage 2 – Reward/Benefit
Conventional
Stage 3 – Approval of Others/Group
Stage 4 – Legalized Morality
Post Conventional
Stage 5 – Individual Rights & Circumstances
Stage 6 – Universal Ethical Principles