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PHL 261 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the two essential questions when it comes to debating rationality?

A
  1. what does it mean to be rational?
  2. are humans rational?
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2
Q

what are some examples of irrational statements?

A
  1. there are more red apples in the world than there are red things
  2. it is better to enact a policy in which 2/3 of the people in a group will live rather than a policy where 1/3 of the people will die
  3. to make sure no one comes into the concert without a ticket, you must make sure everyone in the concert has a ticket and that everyone who has a ticket is at the concert
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3
Q

what is the standard view of rationality?

A

to be rational is to reason in accordance with the principles of reasoning…based on rules of logic, probability theory, and so forth

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4
Q

what are rational beings good at?

A

logical reasoning

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5
Q

what is the setup and general results of the Linda the feminist bank teller example?

A

-scientists give a description of Linda, who is described with many features of a feminist. participants were asked to choose what was more likely if she was a bank teller or a feminist bank teller
-89% of people picked she was more likely to be a feminist and a bank teller rather than just a bank teller

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6
Q

what is the conjuction fallacy?

A

the probability of A can’t be less than the probability of A & B

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7
Q

how does Linda’s example show conjuction fallacy?

A

the probability that Linda is a bank teller can’t be less than the probability that she is a feminist bank teller

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8
Q

what is representativeness?

A

selecting based on how they represent the essential features of the evidence

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9
Q

how is representativeness shown in the Linda example?

A

the description of Linda is highly representative to feminists, and much more representative to feminists than bank tellers

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10
Q

what is the explanation T&K give of the results of the Linda example?

A

they are using conjunction fallacy

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11
Q

what is the setup and general results of the lawyer/engineer example?

A

-a panel of psychologists have interviewed and administered personality tests to 30 engineers and 70 lawyers, all successful in their respective fields. on the basis of this information, thumbnail descriptions of the 30 engineers and 70 lawyers have been written
-there are 3 types of descriptions:
one that sounds like an engineer, one that sounds like just some dude, and one that has no description
-were told to guess on a scale of 1-100 if they believe the description is an engineer
-case 3: most people guessed right
-case 1: thought it was highly likely he was an engineer in both lawyer dominant and engineer dominant studies
-case 2: 50% in both lawyer and engineer dominant conditions

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12
Q

what is the fault reasoning in the lawyer/engineer case?

A

rather than using probabilities, we use how representative the descriptions are to the population to make our decision (base rate neglect)

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13
Q

what is base rate neglect?

A

subjects either completely or very nearly completely ignore the base-rate, and base their probability almost completely on the description

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14
Q

what is bayesian reasoning?

A

the probability of a hypothesis on a given body of evidence in part depends on the prior probability of the hypothesis

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15
Q

what the prior probability have to do with bayesian reasoning?

A

the probability of given evidence in part depends on the prior probability

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16
Q

what are some examples of bayesian reasoning?

A

all 19 people (that you know of) who have tried to dive off of a certain cliff have died, so you consider it to be a dangerous activity. then honest uncle jeff tells you he survived jumping off it, so you have to update your probability of dying

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17
Q

what is the setup and general results of the framing effect?

A

you give people the same question framed in different ways and see that when you use words with negative connotations, they are less likely to pick that option

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18
Q

what is T&K’s explanation of the framing effect?

A

we have “contradictory attitudes towards risks involving gains and losses”

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19
Q

what is the overview of the T&K argument?

A

-a being is rational only if it can reason in accordance with the kinds of rules laid out by probability theory and logic
-humans are not very good at reasoning in accordance with probability theory and logic

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20
Q

what is the conclusion of the T&K argument?

A

humans are not rational

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21
Q

which premise of the T&K argument does the idea of ecological rationality disagree with?

A

that humans are completely irrational

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22
Q

what is ecological rationality?

A

decision-making process is rational to the degree that it succeeds in real-world environments, taking into account the limitations that the organism faces

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23
Q

how does ecological rationality differ from the standard view?

A

a decision-making process is rational to the degree that it respects the rules of logic, probability, statistics while a decision-making process is rational to the degree that it succeeds in real-world environments, taking into account the limitations that the organism faces

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24
Q

what is the idea of “satisficing”?

A

to look for adequate solutions, use them, then move on to the next problem

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25
Q

what is the idea of bounded rationality?

A

organisms have limited time, knowledge, and computational capacities, and each environment presents its own kinds of challenges

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26
Q

how is the idea of bounded rationality connected to the idea of ecological rationality?

A

using ecological rationality, they must take into account the limitations that we are bounded by

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27
Q

what are the modules in evolutionary psychology?

A

cognitive mechanisms that are specialized to operate some (often very) specific task

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28
Q

what are modules evolved from?

A

some reoccurring problem faced by our hominid ancestors

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29
Q

are modules mandatory?

A

yes

30
Q

what is central processing?

A

higher cognitive processes such as reasoning, problem-solving, desire formation, and belief fixation

31
Q

what is evolutionary psychologists view on the mind?

A

it is “massively modular”

32
Q

what is the frequentist hypothesis?

A

some of our inductive reasoning mechanisms do embody aspects of a calculus of probability, but they are designed to take frequency information as input and produce frequencies as output

33
Q

how do we cognate in our evolutionary environment?

A

probabilistic information in the environment is more likely to have been represented as frequencies

34
Q

what is the difference in probabilistic information and frequencies?

A

probabilistic information is in %’s while frequencies are like 1 out of 10

35
Q

what is reciprocal altruism?

A

helping someone else in the belief that they will return the favor

36
Q

what is the cheater detection hypothesis?

A

we possess a module for tracking whether people are cheating in social exchange situations

37
Q

what is the new version of the Linda experiment?

A

there are 100 people that fit the description given in the first description of Linda. how many are bank tellers and how many are bank tellers and part of the feminist movement

38
Q

what are the results of the new Linda experiment?

A

there was a small percentage of people that said that there were more bank tellers and feminists than just bank tellers

39
Q

what is the explanation behind the results of the new Linda experiment?

A

in our evolutionary environment, we never didn’t need to use single case probabilities, instead, we dealt with frequencies

40
Q

what is the new version of Wason selection task?

A

you’re now presented as a bouncer and are shown four cards that represent 4 different people. one side shows what the person is drinking while the other side shows their age. you have to find out which card to turn over to see if anybody broke the rule

41
Q

what is the original version of the wason selection task?

A

here are four cards. each of them has a letter on one side and a number on the other side. two of these cards are show with the the letter side up, and two with the number side up. you must turn over only two cards to figure out if the statement “if a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an odd number on the other side” is true

42
Q

what are the results of the new Wason selection task?

A

most people get it right

43
Q

why are people better at the new version of the Wason selection task?

A

the new version presents the content using contracts of obligations

44
Q

what are fast and frugal heuristics?

A

heuristics that are efficient and yet pretty effective

45
Q

what is the difference between the old Wason selection task and the new one?

A

the old version is strictly logical in nature and doesn’t have context while new version is contractual in nature and has the ability to break a law

46
Q

why do organisms adopt fast and frugal heuristics?

A

it is more beneficial for them to use whatever strategies give the best (if not perfect) results, given limitations such as time

47
Q

what is the city-naming study?

A

scientists asked german and american subjects whether san diego or san antonio had a larger population

48
Q

what were the results of the city-naming study?

A

more germans got it right because they had never heard of san antonio while they had heard of san diego

49
Q

what is the “take the best heuristic”?

A

choosing between two alternatives by searching through clues based on validity then stopping search when cues discriminate, then choosing the option the cue favors

50
Q

what are some examples of “take the best heuristic” questions to ask yourself?

A

do i recognize its name? is it a capital? does it have a university?

51
Q

what are some other fast and frugal strategies?

A

the 1/N strategy: distribute investments equally
-satisficing: pick the first one that meets your minimum requirements
-default: if there is a default, stick with it unless there’s a problem
-imitate the majority/successful: do whatever they do

52
Q

what is a classical epiphenomenalism?

A

physical events cause mental events, but no mental events ever cause physical events

53
Q

what is contemporary epiphenomenalism?

A

some mental events that we thought played a causal role in our behavior actually do not

54
Q

what is local epiphenomenalism?

A

just certain mental states don’t do anything

55
Q

what is global epiphenominalism?

A

the mind never does anything

56
Q

what is the dual-visual systems theory?

A

functions of the visual processing streams based on dorsal and ventral streams

57
Q

what are the functions of the ventral streams?

A

object identification

58
Q

what are the functions of the dorsal streams?

A

prepares visual information for use in motor action

59
Q

what is some brain lesion evidence for the streams having these functions?

A

lesions to dorsal stream bringing about motor deficits in things like reaching and grabbing. lesions to ventral streams cannot consciously perceive the shape or orientation of objects but is still able to perform skilled motor actions towards objects

60
Q

what is the ventral stream’s association with consciousness?

A

ventral stream is the sole seat of visual consciousness

61
Q

what is the hypothesis of experience-based control?

A

information from visual consciousness is typically used to guide motor action

62
Q

what is the dissociation argument and the data it uses?

A

there are numerous cases in which motor action is carried out successfully without using data from visual consciousness

63
Q

what is some neuropsychological evidence for disassociation argument?

A

-ventral stream damage shows that normal visual perception (in this case, of shape)is not necessary for skilled motor action
-consciousness (of object shape, form, etc) is absent and yet motor action is normal

64
Q

what is some psychophysical evidence for disassociation argument?

A

while subjects would misjudge the size of the central disks, they used the correct grip width for grasping them

65
Q

what is the ventral/dorsal connections?

A

majority of the connections in the visual system go just further into the dorsal or ventral stream. there are, however, some direct connections between the two

66
Q

how the ventral/dorsal connections affect how the lesion evidence is interpreted

A

-consciousness (of object shape, form, etc.) is absent and yet motor action is normal
-so, consciousness cannot be guiding motor action

67
Q

what is clark’s alternative hypothesis for the function of visual experience?

A

visual consciousness provides information to executive processes so that they can select what actions to perform

68
Q

what is the teleassistance analogy?

A

a remote operator flags objects for the robot to perform motor routines towards
-visual consciousness (in the ventral stream) is the remote operator, flagging objects for the unconsciousness dorsal stream to perform motor routines toward

69
Q

where does the dorsal stream run to?

A

posterior parietal cortex

70
Q

where does the ventral stream run to?

A

inferotemporal cortex

71
Q

what is the primary visual cortex?

A

receives visual information from retinas. where dorsal and ventral stream stem from

PHL 261 (2 decks)

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