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Sensation and Perception > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Perceptual process of hearing

A

1.Sound stimulus is produced
2.Sound travels through the air and is received by the auditory receptors
3.Signals are transduced and sent to the brain
4.Sound information is processed in the brain
5.We perceive the sound
6.We recognize the sound
7.We act on the sound

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2
Q

Physical definition of sound

A

pressure changes in the air

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3
Q

Perceptual definition of sound

A

experience we have when we hear

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4
Q

Sound occurs when…

A

the movement or vibration of an object causes pressure changes in a medium that can transmit vibrations

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5
Q

Condensation

A

Increase in density

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6
Q

Rarefaction

A

Decrease in density

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7
Q

Sound wave

A

pattern of pressure changes

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8
Q

Pure tone

A

tone with pressure changes that can be described as a single sine wave

Building blocks of sound

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9
Q

Frequency

A

number of cycles per second that the pressure changes repeat
measured in Hertz (Hz)
Associated with pitch

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10
Q

What range of Hz can humans perceive?

A

20-20,000 Hz

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11
Q

Amplitude

A

Size of the pressure change
measured in decibels (dB)
associated with loudness

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12
Q

Decibels increase logarithmically

A

an increase of 20 dB means the amplitude is 10x greater

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13
Q

Periodic tones

A

tones with a repeating waveform

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14
Q

Periodic tones have a ____.

A

Fundamental frequency

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15
Q

Fundamental frequency

A

Number of times a sound repeats per second

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16
Q

The first harmonic or fundamental of a complex tone, is usually the ___ in the frequency spectrum of a complex tone.

A

lowest frequency

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17
Q

Higher harmonics

A

The other components of a tone; frequencies are whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency

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18
Q

Loudness

A

Perceptual quality most closely related to amplitude of an auditory stimulus

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19
Q

What Hz are humans most sensitive to?

A

2,000-4,000 Hz

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20
Q

Pitch

A

quality of a sound ranging from low to high, most closely related to a frequency of a tone

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21
Q

Octave

A

tones that have frequencies that are binary multiples of each other

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22
Q

Timbre

A

quality that distinguishes between two tones that sound different even though they have the same loudness, pitch, and duration

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23
Q

Attack

A

Buildup of sound at the beginning of the tone

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24
Q

Decay

A

decrease in sound at the end of the tone

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25
Q

Aperiodic sounds

A

sound waves that do not repeat

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26
Q

Physical qualities of sound

A

Frequency
amplitude
harmonic structure

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27
Q

Perceptual qualities of a sound

A

Pitch
loudness
timbre

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28
Q

Three main sections of the ear

A

Inner ear
middle ear
outer ear

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29
Q

Tympanic membrane

A

ear drum

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30
Q

What makes up the outer ear?

A

Pinna
auditory canal
Tympanic membrane

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31
Q

The outer ear is responsible for

A

resonance
resonance frequency

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32
Q

Resonance

A

Certain frequencies are enhanced

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33
Q

What makes up the middle ear?

A

Ossicles
Oval window
middle ear muscles

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34
Q

What are the three parts of the ossicles

A

Malleus
Incus
stapes

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35
Q

What are the ossicles responsible for

A

concentrating the vibration of the large tympanic membrane onto the much smaller stapes

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36
Q

middle ear muscles

A

dampen loud sounds and our own sounds

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37
Q

Parts of the inner ear

A

Cochlea
cochlear partition- extends from base to apex
organ of Corti
hair cells-stereocilia
basilar membrane
tectorial membrane

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38
Q

Steps of sound transmission

A
  1. Stapes vibrates
  2. Oval window moves back and forth
  3. Vibrations travel through cochlear fluid
  4. Basilar membrane moves up and down
    5a. Organ of Corti moves up and down
    5b. Tectorial membrane move back and forth
  5. Stereocilia of hair cells bend one way
  6. Tip links stretch
  7. Tiny ion channels open
  8. Potassium (K+) flows in
  9. Electrical signal results
  10. Neurotransmitters released in synapse
  11. Stereocilia bend other way
  12. Ion channels close
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39
Q

Vibrations bend the

A

stereocilia

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40
Q

bending of stereocilia causes

A

electrical signals

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41
Q

A sound wave’s frequency determines the ____.

A

Timing of electrical signals

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42
Q

Phase locking

A

firing of auditory neurons in synchrony with the phase of an auditory stimulus

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43
Q

Békésy discovered …

A

how the basilar membrane vibrates like a traveling wave.

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44
Q

Place of greatest vibration depends on…

A

Frequency

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45
Q

Base (____)
Apex (____)

A

High frequencies
low frequencies

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46
Q

The basilar membrane has a ___ organization

A

Tonotopic

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47
Q

Tonotopic map

A

orderly map of frequencies (tones) along the length of the cochlea

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48
Q

Cochlear amplifier

A

expansion and contraction of the outer hair cells in response to sound sharpens the movement of the basilar membrane to specific frequencies

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49
Q

Place theory

A

says that pitch perception is based on the place along the basilar membrane at which the nerve firing is highest

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50
Q

Problem with place theory

A

amplitude-modulated noise – noise that isn’t associated with vibration of a particular part of basilar membrane, yet still results in pitch perception

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51
Q

Frequency theory

A

says that pitch perception is based on the frequency of action potentials in auditory nerve neurons, which occur at the same frequency as the sound.

  • considered the best theory
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52
Q

Damage to inner hair cells

A

loss of sensitivity

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53
Q

Damage to outer hair cells

A

loss of sensitivity and loss of sharp frequency tuning (cochlear amplification)

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54
Q

Auditory pathway

A

Cochlea
Auditory nerve
Cochlear nucleus
Superior olivary nucleus
Inferior colliculus
Medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus)
A1 (primary receiving area)
Other areas in cortex

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55
Q

Presbycusis

A

hearing loss caused by hair cell damage resulting from cumulative effects over time

caused by noise exposure, drugs that damage hair cells, and age-related degeneration

affects men more than women

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56
Q

Greatest loss of hearing for Presbycusis

A

greatest loss for high frequencies

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57
Q

Noise-induced hearing loss

A

occurs when loud noises cause degeneration of the structures involved in hearing

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58
Q

Noise-induced hearing loss can involve damage to

A

Organ of Corti
hair cells
auditory nerve fibers

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59
Q

Cochlear implants

A

use electrodes inserted into the cochlea to create hearing by electronically stimulating auditory nerve fibers.

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60
Q

Parts of cochlear implant

A
  1. microphone
  2. sound processor
  3. transmitter
  4. array of electrodes

essentially acts as the hair cells

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61
Q

Auditory localization

A

perception of the location of a sound source

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62
Q

Auditory space/ scene

A

the sound environment, which includes the locations and qualities of individual sound sources

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63
Q

Location cues

A

characteristics of a sound that provide info regarding location of the sound source

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64
Q

Binaural cues

A

require two ears
determine the azimuth of sounds

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65
Q

monaural cues

A

requires only one ear

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66
Q

Three dimensions in auditory space

A

Azimuth
elevation
distance

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67
Q

Azimuth

A

left-right sound cues

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68
Q

Elevation

A

up-down sound cues

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69
Q

Distance

A

how far or close the sound is

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70
Q

Interaural time difference (ITD)

A

difference between when a sound reaches the left ear and when it reaches the right ear

between-ear sound difference

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71
Q

What is ITD best for

A

low-frequency sounds

most important binaural cue

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72
Q

Interaural level difference (ILD)

A

difference in sound pressure level (amplitude of the sound reaching the two ears)

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73
Q

Acoustic shadow

A

The head blocks the ear, resulting in the sound appearing quieter in the opposite ear

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74
Q

ILD is best for

A

high-frequency sounds

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75
Q

The ILD and the ITD leave ____ ambiguous

A

elevation

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76
Q

Cone of confusion

A

surface in the shape of a cone that extends out from the ear; sounds originating from different locations on this surface all have the same ITD and ILD, so location info provided by these cues is ambiguous

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77
Q

The anterior auditory cortex is important for

A

pitch perception

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77
Q

A1 travels to other cortical auditory areas

A

core area
belt area
parabelt area

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78
Q

Core area

A

A1 and nearby

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78
Q

Belt area

A

surrounds and receives signal from core

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79
Q

Spectral cue

A

distribution of frequencies reaching the ear that are associated with specific locations of a sound, caused by interaction of sound with head and pinnae

important for elevation

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80
Q

Parabelt area

A

receives signals from belt area

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81
Q

Hoffmann et al.

A

demonstrated the importance of the pinnae for localization of elevation

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82
Q

The Jeffress neural coincidence model

A

neural circuit for processing the interaural time difference

neurons are wired to each to receive signals from the two ears, so that different neurons fire to different ITDs

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83
Q

Coincidence detectors

A

neurons detecting the coincidence of both ears firing together

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84
Q

Mammals have much broader

A

ITD tuning curves

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85
Q

Location of sound indicated by a ratio of responding in groups of

A

broadly tuned neurons

86
Q

A1 and other areas are involved in

A

sound localization

evidence from ablation and cortical cooling, single electrode recordings

87
Q

Posterior belt

A

precise info about location of a sound

88
Q

Two auditory pathways extend from the

A

temporal lobe to the frontal lobe

89
Q

What pathway

A

Identifying sounds

90
Q

Where pathway

A

Localizing sounds

91
Q

Direct sound

A

from sound source

92
Q

Indirect sound

A

reflections of sound

93
Q

Precedence effect

A

when two identical or very similar sounds reach a listener’s ears separated by only a short time interval, the listener hears the first sound that reaches his or her ears

94
Q

Architectural acoustics

A

study of how properties of a room affect the quality of a sound.

95
Q

Reverberation time

A

the time it takes for the sound to decrease to 1/1000th of its original amplitude

96
Q

Auditory scene analysis

A

sounds produced by different sources become perceptually organized into sounds at different locations and into separated streams of sound

97
Q

Melody

A

sequence of pitches perceived as belonging together

98
Q

Music

A

sound organized in a way that creates a melody.

99
Q

Rhythm

A

the time pattern of durations created by notes

100
Q

Beat

A

equally spaced intervals of time

101
Q

Listening to a beat activates

A

motor areas

102
Q

Meters

A

the organization of beats into bars or measures.

103
Q

acoustic signal

A

pattern of frequencies and intensities of the sound stimulus

104
Q

The sound that’s produced from the voice depends on the shape of the

A

vocal tract

105
Q

articulators

A

structures involved in speech production

106
Q

vowel sounds are produced by

A

vibrating the vocal cords

107
Q

the specific sound of each vowel is created by

A

changing the overall shape of the vocal tract, changes resonant frequency which changes sounds.

108
Q

Each vowel sound has a characteristic series of

A

formants

109
Q

formant

A

horizontal band of energy in speech spectrogram associated with vowels

110
Q

sound spectrogram

A

shows the pattern of intensities and frequencies for a speech stimulus

111
Q

consonants are produced by

A

constricting or closing the vocal tract

112
Q

formant transitions

A

rapid shifts in frequency that precede or follow a formant

113
Q

speech sounds are described by the manner and place of articulation, as well as

A

being voiced or unvoiced

114
Q

Place of articulation

A

Lips /b/

alveolar ridge /d/

soft palate /g/

115
Q

manner of articulation

A

stopped /b/

partially obstructed /s/
initially blocked /j/
nasal /n/

116
Q

voiced or unvoiced

A

voiced- b, a, e, i, o u
unvoiced- p, t, k

117
Q

phoneme

A

shortest segment of speech that, if changed, would change the meaning of the word

speech sound, not letter

118
Q

different languages have ____ of phonemes

A

different numbers

119
Q

variability problem

A

there is no simple relationship between a particular phoneme and the acoustic signal

120
Q

coarticulation

A

overlapping articulation that occurs when different phonemes follow one another in speech

121
Q

two sources of variability in the variability problem

A

variability from context (surrounding phonemes) and the acoustic signals.

122
Q

variability in pronunciation

A

pitch, speed, accent

123
Q

categorical perception

A

we only perceive phonemes in discrete categories, even though phonetic features may vary continuously

124
Q

voice onset time

A

time delay between when the sound begins and when the vocal cords begin vibrating

125
Q

phonetic boundary

A

the Voice onset time when perception changes from one speech category to another

126
Q

How does the speech perception system solve the variability problem?

A

categorical perception, info provided by the face, info from our knowledge of language.

127
Q

speech perception is aided by info from

A

faces

128
Q

McGurk effect

A

speech perception is influenced by both auditory and visual stimuli

129
Q

Speech perception is influenced by both

A

top-down and bottom-up processing

130
Q

speech segmentation

A

perceiving individual words from continuous flow of speech signals

131
Q

Transitional probabilities

A

chances that one sound will follow another sound

132
Q

aphasia

A

difficulty speaking or understanding speech due to brain damage

133
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

problems with speech production and grammar

134
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

problems with speech comprehension

135
Q

Areas of the brain involved in speech perception

A

Parietal lobe, STS, temporal lobe

136
Q

Parietal lobe damage

A

difficulty discriminating between syllables

137
Q

STS

A

activated more by voices than other sounds

138
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Voice cells respond more strongly to recordings of monkey calls

139
Q

dual-stream model of speech perception

A

Ventral- recognizing speech
Dorsal- Linking acoustic signals to movements used to produce speech

140
Q

speech perception development involves

A

learning the sounds of a language

141
Q

somatosensory system

A

sensation of the body and its movements

142
Q

Proprioception

A

ability to sense the position of the body and limbs

143
Q

Kinesthesia

A

ability to sense the movement of the body and limbs

144
Q

Cutaneous senses

A

sensations from receptors in the skin

145
Q

Functions of the skin

A

-holding in bodily fluids
-protection
-warnings and other info

146
Q

Layers of the skin

A

epidermis
dermis
hypodermis

147
Q

4 types of mechanoreceptors

A

-Merkel receptor
-Messiner corpuscle
-Ruffini cylinder
-Pacinian corpuscle

148
Q

Merkel receptor

A

fine detail
course texture

149
Q

Ruffini cylinder

A

stretching of skin

150
Q

Pacinian corpuscle

A

Vibration, fine texture

151
Q

Messiner Corpuscle

A

grip control

152
Q

Medial lemniscal

A

large fibers,
touch, proprioception
fast

153
Q

Spinothalamic pathway

A

smaller fibers
pain, temperature
slower

154
Q

Primary somatosensory cortex (s1)

A

somatotopic organization
example of cortical magnification

155
Q

cortical body maps demonstrate

A

plasticity

156
Q

people can detect very small

A

tactile details

157
Q

tactile acuity

A

ability to detect details on the skin

158
Q

tactile acuity is better in some areas than others

A

ex. better in fingertips that palms

159
Q

tactile acuity responds to

A

representation space in the brain

160
Q

tactile acuity also depends on

A

cortical receptive field size

161
Q

three elements that tactile acuity depends on

A

receptor spacing
cortical representation
receptive field size

162
Q

duplex theory of texture perception

A

says that our perception of texture depends on both spatial cues and temporal cues

163
Q

Spatial cues

A

from large surface elements, can be detected with or without motion

164
Q

temporal cues

A

from fine-grained surface elements, can only be detected with motion

165
Q

Neuropathic pain

A

damage to the nervous system

166
Q

Nociceptive pain from nociceptors

A

detects heat, chemicals, pressure, cold

167
Q

direct pathway model of pain

A

pain occurs when nociceptors are stimulated and they send signals directly from the skin to the brain

168
Q

fine textures are detected by

A

Pacinian corpuscles

169
Q

coarse textures are detected by

A

Merkel receptors

170
Q

Phantom limb syndrome

A

when someone continues to perceive a limb after it has been amputated

171
Q

Active touch

A

when a person actively explores an object

172
Q

Passive touch

A

when touch stimuli are applied to the skin

173
Q

haptic perception

A

perception in which 3-D objects are explored with the fingers and hand

174
Q

exploratory procedures

A

used to investigate objects

175
Q

gate control model of pain

A

pain perception is determined by a neural circuit that takes into account signals from nociceptors, mechanoreceptors, cortex

176
Q

4 exploratory procedures

A

lateral motion, pressure, enclosure, contour following

177
Q

Social touch

A

one person touching another

178
Q

Placebo effect

A

relief from symptoms resulting from a substance that has no pharmacological effect

179
Q

mechanoreceptors are concentrated in

A

glabrous (non- hairy) skin

180
Q

C-Tactile (CT) afferent nerve fibers

A

found in hairy skin and respond to gentle stroking

181
Q

Social touch hypothesis

A

CT afferents are responsible for social touch

182
Q

Pain matrix

A

network of brain structures involved in pain perception

S1, Thalamus, amygdala, insula, ACC, PFC, hippocampus

183
Q

pain is multimodal, it involves both

A

sensory and affective components

184
Q

Opioid

A

chemical that reduces pain and induces feelings of euphoria
work by taking the place of endorphins

185
Q

Social touch involves the ____ of touch rather than the ____ that mechanoreceptors produce

A

affective function, discriminative function

186
Q

CT fibers are specially sensitive to

A

slow stroking

187
Q

Endorphins

A

natural pain relievers in the brain
endogenous morphines

188
Q

Naloxone (Narcan)

A

Blocks endorphin receptors to block opioids
can reverse opioid overdose

189
Q

Social touch activates the

A

insula

190
Q

Placebos can result in the release of

A

endorphins

191
Q

social touch perception is influenced by

A

top-down processing

192
Q

four types of papillae on the tongue

A

filiform, fungiform, foliate, circumvallate

193
Q

which papillae does not contain taste buds?

A

filiform

194
Q

each taste bud contains

A

50-100 taste cells

195
Q

taste pathway

A

-taste cells
-chorda tympani & other cranial nerves
-nucleus of the solitary tract (brain stem)
-ventral posterior nucleus (thalamus)
-insula and frontal operculum (primary taste cortex)

196
Q

population coding for taste

A

taste quality is signaled by the pattern of activity distributed across many neurons

197
Q

Specificity coding

A

taste quality is signaled by activity in individual neurons tuned to respond to specific qualities

198
Q

Olfactory and taste receptors undergo

A

neurogenesis

199
Q

evidence for population coding

A

across-fiber patterns
Erickson (1963)

200
Q

5 (or 6) basic tastes

A

salty
sour
sweet
bitter
umami
(fats-oleogustus)

201
Q

taste acts as a gatekeeper of

A

what to eat and what to avoid

202
Q

Evidence for specificity coding

A

genetic cloning experiments
PTC-bitter

203
Q

tips of taste cells protrude through

A

taste pores

204
Q

Transduction occurs when chemicals contact

A

receptor sites on tips

205
Q

basic taste qualities are determined by

A

specificity coding

206
Q

subtle differences in taste are determined by

A

population coding

207
Q

there are differences in taste perceptions across different

A

species and people

208
Q

Olfaction can act as a

A

warning system

209
Q

Macrosmatic vs microsmatic animals

A

macrosmatic have a strong, keen sense of smell important for their survival

microsmatic have a less keen sense of smell, not as important for survival

210
Q

Anosmia

A

inability to smell

211
Q

pheromones are detected via the

A

vomeronasal organ

212
Q

humans do not have a functioning

A

vomeronasal organ, but we can detect odors related to fertility

213
Q
A

Sensation and Perception (3 decks)

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