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The Human Organism > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Zygote

A

A fertilized egg
46 diploid chromosomes, 23 haploid from each parent
0-5/6 days

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2
Q

Gamete

A

Sex cells/egg or sperm cells
The only haploid cells in the body are gamete cells

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3
Q

Sex of fetus is determined by…

A

The arrangement of sex hormones (XX or XY)

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4
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

Does not involve the fusion of gametes
Produce genetically identical offspring
Evolve slowly and adapt poorly

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5
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

Produce offspring with reconstituted genome (re-assortment of chromosomes)
Survival advantage because they evolve quicker and adapt better, and harmful recessive mutations are masked by a normal gene
New genomes produced by crossing over of genetic material

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6
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

The allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another gene

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7
Q

How do hormones produce functional sex organs?

A

Peptide–moves into brain and stimulates changes in order to modulate sexual feedback and genitalia
Steroid–allows for movement in and out of BBB (communication between body and CNS restricted by hydrophobic BBB

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8
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Control of hormone secretion

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9
Q

Anterior pituitary

A

Stimulated by hypothalamus
Hormone secretion by the thyroid, adrenal cortex, and gonads
Growth

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10
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Stimulated by hypothalamus
Water and salt balance

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11
Q

Endocrinology

A

The study of hormones

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12
Q

Neuroendocrine interactions

A

Endocrine system glands secrete chemicals/hormones into the bloodstream, travel to target tissues, produce long-lasting responses over time, influence metabolism and development, pass through BBB
Nervous system cells travel to target tissues via electrical current, produce fast responses, influence acute changes in body systems

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13
Q

Neuroendocrine cells

A

Neurons that communicate with hormones in conjunction with neurochemicals

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14
Q

Hormone chemicals

A

Produced and released from differentiated cell types to affect other cells in the body and brain
Interactions occur through blood circulation to target
Endocrine system cells release hormones that travel long distances through the bloodstream
Depending on chemical composition effects are fast (adrenaline) or slow (steroids)

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15
Q

HPG axis

A

Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
Regulates reproductive activity and the release of ovarian hormones in animals and humans

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16
Q

Menstrual cycle

A

Menstrual phase (1-5) –> pre-ovulatory phase (1-14) –> ovulation (14th day) –> post-ovulatory phase (14 days after)
Follicular phase –> ovulation –> luteal phase

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17
Q

Hormone regulation in the HPG axis in females

A

Hypothalamus sends GnRH to anterior pituitary –> anterior pituitary produces FSH and LH –> FSH and LH rise and help to mature the primary and secondary follicles (which happens over menstruation) –> once follicles are mature, they release estrogen which goes back to the hypothalamus and tells it to stop producing FSH and LH (acting as a negative feedback inhibitor)

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18
Q

Hormone regulation in the HPG axis in males

A

Hypothalamus sends GnRH to anterior pituitary –> anterior pituitary produces LH and FSH –> LH and FSH act on the testes to produce testosterone –> testosterone goes back to the hypothalamus to inhibit GnRH

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19
Q

Cholesterol

A

Template for all steroid hormones
Can be used to create progesterone (female reproduction), estradiol (female reproduction), and testosterone (male reproduction)

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20
Q

Hormones released from the anterior pituitary gland

A

GnRH, TRH, PRH, GHRH, CRH, SRIH
Act on the pituitary gland

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21
Q

GnRH

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Releases LH and FSH (depending on frequency of stimulation); targets the reproductive system
Stimulates production of sex hormones by gonads (LH) and the production of sperm and eggs (FSH)

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22
Q

TRH

A

Thyroid-releasing hormone
Releases thyroid-stimulating hormone and stimulates prolactin secretion
Acts on thyroid gland
Regulates metabolism

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23
Q

PRH

A

Prolactin-releasing hormone
Releases prolactin
Acts on mammary glands
Promotes milk production

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24
Q

GHRH

A

Growth hormone-releasing hormone
Releases growth hormone; acts on liver, bone, and muscle
Induces targets to produce insulin-like growth factors that stimulate body growth and a higher metabolic rate

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25
Q

CRH

A

Corticotropin-releasing hormone
Releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Acts on adrenal glands
Induces targets to produce glucocorticoids, which regulate metabolism and the stress response

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26
Q

SRIH

A

Somatotropin release inhibiting hormone
Inhibits growth hormone

27
Q

Hormones stored by the posterior pituitary gland

A

ADH and oxytocin; produced by the hypothalamus

28
Q

ADH

A

Antidiuretic hormone
Acts on kidneys, sweat glands, and circulatory system
Water balance

29
Q

Oxytocin

A

Acts on female reproductive system
Triggers uterine contractions during childbirth

30
Q

HPA axis

A

Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis
Hypothalamus sends CRH to anterior pituitary which releases ACTH –> ACTH acts on adrenal gland to produce cortisol –> cortisol provides feedback to the pituitary and hypothalamus to stop producing CRH
Stress activates HPA axis (chronic stress results in negative feedback at all levels)

31
Q

Psychopharmacology

A

Classification of drugs based upon general type of CNS effect produced

32
Q

Depressants

A

Produce general decrease in cognitive and behavioral processes
Alcohol (ETOH), marijuana, barbiturates (sedatives), benzodiazepines (tranquilizers)

33
Q

Stimulants

A

Produce general increase in behavior and thought
Nicotine, caffeine, amphetamine, and cocaine
Act on dopamine

34
Q

Hallucinogens and opiates

A

Alter perception of reality
LSD and derivatives, opium
Act on serotonin

35
Q

Tolerance

A

More and more of the drug is required to produce desired effect–leads to addiction

36
Q

Addiction

A

Physiological and psychological need for a drug

37
Q

Withdrawal

A

Physical and psychological symptoms opposite from those the drug induces

38
Q

Opponent-process theory

A

A drug produces changes from homeostasis (A-process), and the body tries to reduce changes by producing opposite effects (B-process)
Tolerance is an increased strength of the B-process
Addiction is the need for more A-process to counteract the negative B-process
Withdrawal is the removal of the A-process leaving behind a strengthened B-process

39
Q

Alcohol and marijuana

A

Depressant
Administration–beverage/inhalant
Distribution–small, intense (rapid absorption)
Elimination–metabolized by the liver
CNS effects–visual impairment, lack of motor coordination, increased reaction time, euphoria, and release from inhibitions

40
Q

Sedatives/Tranquilizers

A

Depressant
Act to decrease anxiety via global depression of the CNS, effects are supra additive

41
Q

Barbiturates

A

Class of synthetic compounds, usually taken orally and distributed through the bloodstream
Act as GABA agonist on GABA receptors (increases effect of GABA)
Currently used as sleep aids and anticonvulsants
Risks include addiction, tolerance, and insomnia upon withdrawal

42
Q

Benzodiazepines

A

Tranquilizer
Synthetic compound used extensively as antianxiety drugs
Taken orally and distributed through the bloodstream
GABA agonist
Common side effects–lethargy and drowsiness
Risks include addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal, also great hazard for overdose especially if mixed with alcohol

43
Q

Cocaine

A

Stimulant
Administration–nasally, crack (highly pure form) can be smokes
Distribution–absorbed by mucosal membranes (nasal) or absorbed directly into the blood (inhaled)
Elimination–metabolized by esterase enzyme in the brain
CNS effects–increased heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature, feelings of euphoria
Risks include addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal
Long-term health risks–cardiovascular or cerebrovascular problems

44
Q

Amphetamines

A

Stimulant
Synthetic compound with chemical structure similar to catecholamines
Severe abuse potential
Administration–oral, nasal, IV
Distribution–via bloodstream
Elimination–metabolized by liver
CNS effects–increase in blood pressure, motor activity, libido, and pain threshold, decreases in bronchial muscle tone, fatigue, appetite, and euphoria, high doses result in paranoia
Risks include addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal

45
Q

Ecstacy

A

Hallucinogen
Synthetic of mescaline
Dangerous and potent toxin of serotonin cells; ability to super stimulate serotonin in the brain, causing cell death
Little risk of addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal

46
Q

LSD

A

Hallucinogen
Acts as a serotonin agonist at inhibitory autoreceptors (inhibit inhibiting neurons, get excitation)
Orally as blots or sugar cubes
Effects include increased heart rate and blood pressure, pupil dilation, perceptual alteration, occasionally psychotic episodes and synesthesia
Tolerance does develop, but not addiction

47
Q

Pharmacokinetics

A

How drugs move through the body; administration –> distribution –> elimination

48
Q

Drug half-life

A

Amount of time required for removal of 50% of drug in blood

49
Q

First order transformation

A

Drug clearance rate proceeds exponentially
Converting enzymes > drug to transform

50
Q

Zero order transformation

A

Drug clearance rate is fixed
Drug to transform > converting enzymes
Concentration of drug saturates metabolizing enzymes

51
Q

Schizophrenia

A

Group of disorders, including 6-month period of disturbances of communication, perception, and thought processes
Chlorpromazine (sedative) reduces florid symptoms

52
Q

Schizophrenia key distinctions

A

Not a mood/affective disorder because people aren’t perceiving something incorrectly, they’re perceiving something that isn’t there

53
Q

Models of schizophrenia

A

Inability to segregate relevant vs. irrelevant sensory stimulation and/or memories
Sensory abnormality producing “false” realities
Hallucinations (auditory)

54
Q

Florid schizophrenia symptoms

A

Type 1/positive
Presence of distinctive behaviors (disorganized thinking, paranoia, delusions of grandeur, bizarre ideation)

55
Q

Negative schizophrenia symptoms

A

Type 2
Absence of normal and social behavior (neglect of personal hygiene, odd behavior and ideas, social isolation, withdrawal, catatonia)
Often precede florid symptoms

56
Q

Rule of thirds

A

After onset of schizophrenia, 1/3 spontaneously recover, 1/3 spontaneous remission and relapse (controlled by medication), 1/3 chronically ill

57
Q

Affective Illness

A

Person perceives reality (sensory stimuli) normally, but feeling about that reality may be distorted

58
Q

Mania

A

A period of abnormally elevated, extreme changes in mood or emotions, energy level, or activity level
Effectively treated by lithium
Often relapses and leads to periods of depression

59
Q

Mania symptoms

A

Accelerated thought process, euphoria, exaggerated sexual or physical appetite, illusions of invincibility, grandiose ambitions

60
Q

Depression symptoms

A

Suicidal thoughts, anhedonia (lack of pleasure), psychomotor retardation, expressions of helplessness, hopelessness, and worthlessness, and sleep disturbances resulting in lost REM sleep

61
Q

Unipolar illness

A

Periods of depression alternate with normal periods

62
Q

Bipolar illness

A

Brief periods of mania oscillate with brief periods of depression and prolonged periods of normalcy
Effectively managed with lithium during manic state and antidepressants during depressive state

63
Q

SSRIs

A

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
Raise extracellular levels of serotonin –> when serotonin is being passed between pre- and post- synaptic cells, there’s excess in the synapse and whatever isn’t used is discarded or reused; SSRIs stop serotonin being reused and makes sure it stays in the synapse a bit longer so serotonin’s effects are amplified
Prozac (fluoxetine), Zoloft (sertraline), and Paxil (paroxetine)
Therapeutic effects take weeks even though biochemical effects are immediate

The Human Organism (4 decks)

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