Exam 3

Question 1

Psychological Perspectives on Interrogation
› What is interrogation?

Answer 1

The systematic questioning of an individual perceived by investigators as noncooperative, within a custodial setting, for the purpose of obtaining reliable information in response to specific requirements
o Criminal or intelligence contexts
Interrogation

Question 2

Psychological Perspectives on Interrogation
› What are the two contexts (that we focused on) in which interrogation occurs? What are the goals in
each of these contexts?

Answer 2

-Criminal: the goal is confession
-Intelligence: the goal is information

Question 3

Psychological Perspectives on Interrogation
› Why has increased attention been paid to interrogation in recent decades?

Answer 3

-False confessions are one of the top 4 leading causes of wrongful convictions
-Leads to the question of why false confessions occur so frequently and what is being done during the interrogation to potentially facilitate them

Question 4

› False confessions
o Do they exist? If so, with what prevalence?

Answer 4

Yes, false confessions were a contributing factor in approx. 30% of DNA exonerations

Question 5

› False confessions
o Know the types of false confessions and example cases for each (make sure you are able to come
up with your own original example for each)

Answer 5

-Compliant false confession:as a result of long or intense interrogation, confession offered as a means to an end
-Internalized false confession:as a result of interrogation, confessor genuinely comes to believe in his/her own guilt
-voluntary false confession: individuals confess of their own volition either to achieve some goal (i.e. fame, notoriety, to protect someone else) or because of a serious mental illness

Question 6

› False confessions
o Know the risk factors for false confession – why do these factors put individuals at increased risk
of falsely confessing during interrogation?
 Dispositional
 Situational

Answer 6

-False confessions are the result of vulnerable people being subjected to powerful influences tactics
Dispositional:
o Juveniles
o Intellectually disabled
o Mentally ill
o Innocent

Situational:
o Lengthy interrogations
o Sleep deprivation
o Impaired decision-making
o Desire to escape situation
o Without fully considering long-term consequences
o Tactics used by interrogators (accusatorial)

Question 7

› Know the different interrogation tactics that were discussed
o What does each entail?

Answer 7

-Torture: application of coercive, physical, psychological, and emotional pressures

-Accusatorial approaches: employ accusatorial approaches that are mostly psychological; involves manipulation of culpability and perceived consequences associated with confession (most popular method is the Reid Technique)

-Rapport-based, information gathering approaches: fact finding is the goal; investigators are not permitted to lie(i.e. PEACE model

Question 8

› Know the different interrogation tactics that were discussed
o Why is each category of tactics thought to be effective/necessary to achieve goal(s) of
interrogation?

Answer 8

-Torture: thought to provide valuable info and retribution

-Accusatorial approaches: often results in suspect confessing to crime

-Rapport-based, info gathering: elicits most information and accurate information

Question 9

› Know the different interrogation tactics that were discussed
o Are these tactics effective at achieving the goal(s) of interrogation when they are employed?
Why or why not?

Answer 9

-Torture: no, increases reluctance to cooperate; may say whatever just to get torture to stop

-Accusatorial approaches: effective at eliciting a confession but it increases the likelihood for false confessions

-Rapport-based, info gathering: yes, keeps suspect from feeling too attacked, allows them to explain everything in a comforting setting

Question 10

› Know the different interrogation tactics that were discussed
o Which of these tactics is thought to be most effective at achieving the goal(s) of interrogation?
Why?

Answer 10

-Rapport-based, information gathering because it allows suspects to not feel accused and gives them time to explain

Question 11

› The use of torture (or ‘enhanced interrogation techniques’) was part of the discussion during the lead up to the most recent presidential election. How did professional interrogators respond to the call by
multiple presidential candidates to bring back the use of these enhanced interrogation techniques? What evidence did they have to support their claims?

Answer 11

-They said it was immoral and counterproductive. It leads to unreliable information
-Degrades a detainee’s ability to recall and transmit info; may relay false info to get torture to momentarily cease
-From experience, most reliable method is rapport-based, info gathering

Supporters cite valuable information
(and retribution)
o Opponents cite poor information and
unethicalness
o People say anything to escape torture
o Stress interferes with memory
o Studies of SERE trainees show that stress increases
false memories

Question 12

› What did the Intelligence Science Board Report about the use of torture and accusatorial interrogation approaches?

Answer 12

-They lack any scientific assessments of validity

Question 13

› What do accusatorial interrogations look like?
o Know and be able to discuss the evolution of accusatorial interrogation techniques

Answer 13

-Early 20th Century: Use of 3rddegree (i.e. prolonged confinement and isolation, explicit threats of harm or punishment, deprivations of sleep and food, extreme sensory discomfort, physical violence)
-Modern interrogation: Employ accusatorial approaches (i.e. mostly psychological, involves manipulation of culpability and perceived consequences associated with confession);REID TECHNIQUE IS MOST POPULAR METHOD

Question 14

› What do accusatorial interrogations look like?
o Be able to discuss and identify the elements of the modern approach to interrogation (Reid
Technique of Interrogation)
 9 steps

Answer 14

-Direct Positive Confrontation: interrogators confront suspect w/ summary of crime and evidence (real or fabricated) indicating that s/he is involved in the crime

Question 15

2nd Reid technique

Answer 15

-Theme Development: interrogator offers possible excuses for the crime

Question 16

3rd Reid technique

Answer 16

Handling Denials
* Interrogators persistently cut off attempts by the suspect to deny
involvement in the crime, returning to the moral excuses offered
earlier

Question 17

4th Reid technique

Answer 17

Overcoming Objections
* Overcoming the explanations offered by the suspect to
support their denials

Question 18

5th Reid technique

Answer 18

. Procurement/Retention of Suspect’s Attention
* An effort to hold the attention of the suspect, who may have
become withdrawn after an extended and intense period of
questioning

Question 19

6th Reid technique

Answer 19

6. Handling Suspect’s Passive Mood
   * Maintain eye contact and move the suspect toward an
   admission of guilt

Question 20

7th Reid technique

Answer 20

Presenting the Alternative Question
* Reframing the issue as a choice between having committed the crime for a good reason or having committed a crime for a bad reason

Question 21

8th Reid technique

Answer 21

Bringing the Suspect into the Conversation
* Having the suspect provide details of the crime

Question 22

9th Reid technique

Answer 22

Written Confession
* Writing out the confession so it can be signed by the suspect

Question 23

› What do accusatorial interrogations look like?
 3 elements of psychological coercion – How does each influence the provision of true
confessions? False confessions?

Answer 23

-Isolation: creates a desire to escape- can increase both real and false confession

-Positive confrontation: uses maximization to pressure suspect into submission by expressing certainty of guilt- may lead to false confessions because people confess assuming there is evidence that exonerates them, when in reality there is no evidence

-Minimization: justifies/normalizes the crime and its seriousness- implies a promise of leniency and provides an escape

Question 24

› What do accusatorial interrogations look like?
 Advantages of this approach? Disadvantages of this approach?

Answer 24

-Advantage: Effectively increases confession
-Disadvantage: Also increases likelihood of false confession

Question 25

› Be able to compare and contrast accusatorial and information-gathering interrogation methods

Answer 25

-Info gathering: Establish rapport, use direct and positive confrontation, employ open-ended and exploratory questions, the primary goal is to elicit info, focus on cognitive cues to deception
-Accusatorial: Establish control, use psychological manipulation, employ closed-ended and confirmatory questions, the primary goal is to obtain a confession, focus on anxiety cues to deception

Question 26

› Be familiar with the PEACE model of interrogation
o Why was this approach implemented?

Answer 26

-Informed by psychology; developed to increase the accuracy of interrogation confessions based off empirical research

Question 27

› Be familiar with the PEACE model of interrogation
o How does the use of this approach differ for suspects and witnesses?

Answer 27

-For compliant/cooperative interviewees use the free recall model (much like the CI)
-For non-compliant/uncooperative interviewees use the conversation management model

Question 28

› Be familiar with the PEACE model of interrogation
o Where is this approach employed? Is it voluntary or mandated by law?

Answer 28

-Employed in England; mandated by law

Question 29

› Be familiar with the PEACE model of interrogation
o What does PEACE stand for?

Answer 29

-Planning and Preparation
-Engage and Explain
-Account, Clarify, Challenge
-Closure
-Evaluation

Question 30

› Be familiar with the PEACE model of interrogation
o Be familiar with the PEACE Conversation Management Model and with what happens at each
phase of this mode

Answer 30

-Step 1: Initiate a free report using TEDS (Tell, Explain, Describe, Show) questions and summarize back what was said

-Step 2: Identify suspect topics

-Step 3: Expand each suspect topic by using 5WH questions and summarizing linking topics

-Step 4: Identify and expand investigatively important topics by using probing 5WH questions and summarizing linking topics

-Step 5: Challenge any inconsistencies in an explanation seeking manner

Question 31

› Be familiar with the PEACE model of interrogation
o Know and be able to discuss and explain what happens at each phase of the PEACE model

Answer 31

-Planning and Preparation: focus on organizing evidence and constructing a plan (review case, set objectives, tactical and strategy framework); interviewee considerations (age, education, fitness of interview, etc.)

Question 32

Engage and Explain

Answer 32

positive first impression, build rapport (including name, active listening, etc.), explain (purpose, structure, roles, recording and/or notetaking), check in with interviewee about concerns, questions, etc.

Question 33

Account, Clarify, Challenge

Answer 33

compliant interviewees use free recall model; noncompliant use conversation management model

Question 34

Account

Answer 34

get their version of events; use open-ended and non-confrontational
questions; do not interrupt; identify topics of interest

Question 35

Clarify

Answer 35

pick out topics that the suspect discussed and probe for more info (use OEQ);
go over topics suspect mentioned and summarize shortly to check for understanding;
cover investigatively important topics that haven’t been addressed but do not reveal
evidence yet; if lying, will further fabricate story that may be disproved later

Question 36

Challenge

Answer 36

Only for uncooperative interviewees; explore any inconsistencies between
their statement and evidence; do not accuse at this time; adopt a clarification-seeking
approach; begin with weakest evidence that conflicts with statement and finish with
strongest

Question 37

Closure

Answer 37

review objectives, advise interrogation is coming to an end, review salient points, explain future processes, invite questions, conclude interview (finishing with polite, positive, and perspective)

Question 38

Evaluation

Answer 38

for both interview (new info to evidence, new actions/lines of inquiry, outcomes of wider investigation) and interviewer’s performance (what did you do well? What could have been done better?)

Question 39

› Be familiar with the PEACE model of interrogation
o According to the PEACE Conversation Management Model, what does it mean to challenge a
suspect?

Answer 39

-Challenge means exploring, not confronting or accusing. Explore any inconsistencies between their statement and evidence

• Explore any inconsistencies between their statement
  and evidence (witnesses or physical)
  – Inconsistencies don’t necessarily mean lies
• Keep in mind that “challenge” means exploring
  – Not confrontational or accusing

Question 40

› What are the three strategic objectives of interrogations?
o Describe each

Answer 40

-Overcoming resistance and achieving cooperation
-Eliciting info from memory
-Assessing credibility

Question 41

› What are the three strategic objectives of interrogations?
o Know how effective each of the three interrogation tactics is at fulfilling each objective. Be
familiar with and able to use relevant research evidence to support your answers

Answer 41

Overcoming resistance and achieving cooperation:
-Torture: Fails to produce timely and accurate info. Appears more likely to increase
resistance
-Accusatorial: Can sometimes induce compliance, increases risk of false confessions, and
certain maximization strategies can produce resistance.
-RBIG: effective for facilitating cooperation and minimizing resistance

Question 42

Eliciting info from memory

Answer 42

-Torture: reduces likelihood of extensive, detailed, and accurate reports
-Accusatorial: confirmatory, suggestive, and leading questions likely to corrupt memory
and lead to false confessions
-RBIG: More likely to yield reliable info

Question 43

Assessing Credibility

Answer 43

-Torture and Accusatorial: Deception studies are rare. Available evidence shows they
are not beneficial in terms of cues to deceit and li detection
-RBIG: Preferred method for verbal lie detection

Question 44

› One concern in interrogation is that a suspect will be resistant and fail to provide the interrogator with
information. Allison et al. (2014) conducted a study and identified 5 counter-interrogation strategies.
What were these 5 strategies and how does each work?

Answer 44

-Passive Resistance: refuses to look at interrogator or maintains silence

-Passive verbal resistance: claims lack of memory or only offers monosyllabic responses

-Direct verbal resistance: offers scripted response of well-known information and/or discusses unrelated topics

-Retraction of prior statements

-Direct refusal to engage: no comment or engagement of right

Question 45

› Based on the evidence presented in this section of the course, which of the three interrogation tactics
discussed affords the best opportunity to fulfill the goals of interrogation (in a criminal context and an
intelligence context)? Why? Why might the other two tactics be detrimental to the goals of
interrogation?

Answer 45

• RBIF approach best allows interrogators to satisfy objectives of interrogation: increases information, decreases resistance, helps with memory recall

-Torture and Accusatorial are potentially detrimental because they increase the risk of resistance, allow for less information to be said, and may not be credible due to the circumstances of the interrogation