Exam 3 Flashcards
What are the 4 functions of the mouth?
-Prehension
-Chewing(Mastication)
-Salivation
-Swallowing(deglutation)
What is at the end of the esophagus leading to the stomach?
Lower esophageal sphincter
How tight is the lower esophageal sphincter?
It’s pretty loose
3 Main areas of the stomach
-Fundus
-Corpus Body
-Antrum
3 Main Areas of the Small Intestine
-duodenum
-jejunum
-ileum
What does the corpus body secrete?
-Mucus
-Pepsinogen
-HCl
What does the Antrum secrete?
-Mucus
-Pepsinogen
-Gastrin
What is the Gastric Pit?
It is the opening into the lumen/intestine from the stomach
What is underneath the gastric pit?
The mucosal layer
What are the 2 main components of the mucosal layer
-gastric glands
-lymphoid tissue
What are groupings of lymphoid tissue referred to as?
Peyer’s Patches
What layer is beneath the muscularis
submucosa
Smooth muscle in stomach
-Oblique
-Circular
-Longitudinal
What kind of smooth muscle is only in the stomach?
Oblique Smooth Muscle
What is the enteric nervous system?
The enteric nervous system is a web of neurons that branch from through the gastrointestinal system
Cells in Gastric pits
-Mucous
-Parietal(Oxynotic Cells)
-Chief
-Endochromafin
-Endocrine
What are Parietal Cells also known as?
Oxynotic Cells
Kinds of mucous cells
Neck Cells and surface cells
What is secreted by parietal cells?
HCl and Intrinsic Factor
What is secreted by chief cells?
pepsinogen
What do endocrine cells secrete?
gastrin and somatostatin
what doe endochromafin cells secrete?
hist amine
How is the Large intestine connected to the small intestine?
Through the ileum
What does the Large intestine have instead of tubules?
Crypts
What are the 4 components of the Large intestine?
-Colon
-Cecum
-Rectum
-Anal Canal
Where is the sublingual and what is it?
An accessory digestive organ that is underneath the tongue
Where is the submandibular and where is it?
It’s an accessory digestive organ that is underneath the jaw
What is the parotids, where is it, and what does it do?
The parotids is an accessory digestive organ by the ears that secrete serous
What accessory digestive organ is unique to ruminants?
inferior molars
Layers of the intestinal wall Descending
-Villi Cells
-Lymph Nodules
-muscularis mucosa
-Submucosal glands
-Submucosal plexes
-Circular smooth muscle
-mycentric plexes
-long smooth muscle
What are the 4 functions of saliva?
-Lubricates food
-Initiates small amounts of polysacchardies by amylase
-dissolves food
-antibacterial actions
What is the main pancreatic duct in the exocrine pancreas?
Wirsung Duct
What is the accessory duct for the exocrine pancrease?
Duct of Santorni
What component is the exit for the bile duct?
sphincter of oddi
What is the pancreas tubloalveolar gland?
Alveoli that are comprised of acinar cells and duct cells
What do acinar cells do?
secrete digestive enzymes
What do the duct cells in the tubloalveolar gland?
secrete bicarbonate
why do duct cells secrete bicarbonate?
To regulate a more neutral pH
Where are the islets of langerhans
in the endocrine pancreas
function of islets of langerhans
secrete insulin and glucagon from groups of pancreatic cells
What organ filters old red blood cells to make bilirubin?
The liver
What organ processes and stores nutrients?
The liver
What is old red blood cells processed into in the liver?
Bilirubin
What organ synthesizes plasma proteins
LIver
Plasma proteins of the liver
-albumin
-clotting proteins
-angiotensin
-steroid binding proteins
What is the main function of the hepatic portal system
the hepatic portal system is specialized vasaculature in the liver deisgned to deliver absorbed nutrients to the liver for processing before they enter systemic circulation
Where does the hepatic portal system absorb nutrients from?
The small intestine
What carries nutrients from the small intestine to the hepatic portal system
mesentriv veins
What is hepatobilary circulation
movement of bile acids from the liver to the SI then back to the liver
What are the cells of the liver?
Hepatocytes
How are hepatocytes organized
into lobules
Where are lobules centered around?
The central vein
where do lobules empty into
into the hepatic vein
Portal Triad:
-Portal Vein
-Hepatic Artery
-Bile Duct
What does the hepatic artery function as
oxygenation of the liver
Where is the bile canaliculi a part of?
The bile duct, or portal triad
What does the bile canaliculi function as?
They are bile capillaries that recieve secreted bile form hepatocytes
What do salivary glands secrete?
Mucous and serous secretions
What is the function of amylase
to break down starch
What do parietal cells(oxynotic cells) secrete
HCl and Intrinsic Factor
Intrinsic factor complexes with___ and is then absorbed by the____
Vitamin B12, ileum
pH of HCl
0.8
How are we protected from low pH’s?
Mucus lining
What does the proton pump help the production of?
HCl
What can pepsin inhibit?
The proton pump
What does HCl reduce feric iron (Fe3+) to?
ferrous iron Fe2+
4 functions of HCl
-activates pepsin
-kills bacteria
-acid hydrolysis of proteins
-Helps with Feric iron (Fe3+) absorption
What is pepsinogen secreted by?
Chief Cells
How is pepsin made?
HCl converting pepsinogen
What is pepsin classified as?
aspartylprotase
What is a –protase?
Acts on proteins
Function of pepsin
-Cleaves aromatic amino acids
-Acts on proteins that are ingested
pH of pepsin
1.3-1.8
How does pepsin degrade proteins?
Through its low pH
Amino acids cleaved by pepsin?
-Phenlyamine
-Tryptophan
-Tyrosine
Endocrine Cells
-Gamma Cells
-Entereochromafin cells
-D Cells
What do gamma cells secrete?
Gastrin
function of gastrin
to stimulate HCl
What do enterochromafin cells secrete?
histomine
Function of histomine
stimulates HCl
What do D cells secrete?
somatostatin
Function of somatostatin
to inhibit HCl
Neural Control of GI Secretions function
Controls smooth muscle contractions
Smooth muscle contractions in GI
peristalitic contractions and rhythamic contractions
What are the sub components of the enteric nervous system?
submucosal plexus and mycentric plexus
How does CNS control sympathetic and parasympathetic processes of the GI
Through hormonal control
What kind of nutrients does the GI absorb?
Everything whether or not you need it or not
Is the GI controlled by nutrional state of the body or the volume of luminal contents?
It is governed by the volume of luminal contents.
What three phases control gastric secretions?
-Cephalic Phase
-Gastric Phase
-intestinal
What does the cephalic phase do>
Stimulates normal enteric activity
What increases during the gastric phase?
HCl and Gastrin
What is the gastric phase mediated by?
-Neural
-Chemical
-mechanical
When does the gastric phase occur?
Only when found in the stomach
Where is gastrin releasing peptide?
In the enteric nervous system
Hormones of the stomach…
-Gastrin
-Somatostatin
-Ach
When does intestinal phase occur?
through mechanical and chemical receptors chyme enters the duodenum
Entereogastric reflex
The duodenum ENS acts on gastrin through the myenteric plexus
What cells are secreted in the duodenal mucosa?
cholecystokinin(cck) and secretin
What are the main pancreatic secretions
-Proteases
-Lipase
-Amylase
-Nucleases
What enzymes are classified as proteases?
-Trypsin
-Chymotrypsin
-clastase
-carboxypeptidase
What are lipase amylase and nucleases classified as?
Zymogen
What does zymogen mean?
Inactive enzymes
What is tripsinogen converted to once in duodenum wall?
Trypsin
How is tripsinogen converted to trypsin?
Therough the process of cleaving (entereokinase)
How is trypsinogen converted to trypsin?
Through the process of cleaving (enterokinase)
What is chymotrypsinogen converted to?
chymotrypsin
How is chymotrypsinogen converted to chymotrypsin?
Through trypsin
What is procarboxypeptidase converted to?
carboxypeptidase
What are the two phases of pancreatic secretions?
Cephalic and gastric
What are bile salts a derivative of?
Cholesterol
What are the two bile salts?
Glyconolic and tahrocholic
What are the bile pigments?
bilirubin and bilioerdin
What are lecithins as a bile secretion?
its a membrane phospholipid derivative
what does secretin as part of bile?
-Stimulates bile salt generation
-Recycles our bile salts
Where are carbs proteins and lipids processed from greatest to least
duodenum > jejunum > ileum
Where is calcium iron and folate processed?
All three are processed in the duodenum however only calcium is processed in juojenum and ileum
What component of the SI are bile acids processed in?
Ileum
What breaks down proteins in the stomach?
pepsin
What breaks down proteins in the small intestine?
Trypsin
What breaks down proteins in the pancreas?
chymotrysin
In the pancreas what processes amino acids?
carboypeptidase
In the SI how are amino acids processed?
Through aminopeptidase
How do amino acids enter epithelial cells?
Through the apical membrane through Na coupling
Where do amino acids exit into after entering epithelial cells?
The basolateral membrane through Na independent transporter
What does GLUT 2 transport as part of the basolateral membrane?
All three monosacharides
At 6 months of age what closes?
Your gut
entereocytes have ____ capacity to ____ whole proteins
limited, phagocytic
90% of whole proteins are degraded by what?
lysosomal enzymes
What do special enterocytes lack?
lysosomal enzymes
what are enterocytes also known as?
M cells
How do endoproteases cleave peptide bonds internally>
-pepsin
-trypsin
-chymotrypsin
How do exoprotease partake in peptide cleavage?
-carboypeptidase
-aminopetpidase
-dipeptidases
pepT1
a hydrogen co transport of di and tripeptides
How are most carbs in the diet consumed as?
polysachardies and dischardies
What sugars are absorbed by intstinal cells?
only monosaccharides
What are the three polysaccharides?
-Starch
-Cellulose
-glycogen
What are the three disaccharides?
-Sucrose
-lactose
-maltose
What are the 3 monosacharides
-galactose
-glucose
-fructose
What linkages can alpha amylase cleave? What is the exception?
only 1:4 linkages except terminal bonds
What kind of linkages does amylopeptin contain?
alpha 1:6 linkages
What linkages are found in cellulose?
Beta 1:4 linkages
What is the minor structural difference between glucose and galactose?
The positioning of an OH bond
How is glucose and galactose transported across the apical membrane?
SGLT1
How is Fructose transported across the apical membrane
Through GLUT5
Brush Border enzymes
-Lactase
-Maltase
-Sucraseisomoltase
-Alpha limit dextrin
Lactase converts lactose into what?
galactose and glucose
Maltase converts maltose into what?
2 glucoses
sucrasemoltase converts sucrose into what?
glucose and fructose
alpha limit dextrinase converts 1:6 alpha linkages to what?
2 glucoses
Those with lactose intolerance have lactose broken down where?
By microbes in the colon
WHere are triglyercides reformed?
In small intestine entereocytes
what do triglycerides form for secretion through entereocytes?
Chlymicrons
What is a free fatty acid also known as
a nonesterified fatty acid
What do fat droplets form with the addition of bile salts?
They form emulsion droplets
What is a mulilaminer coating formed by?
Phospholipids
What are micells formed by?
amphipillic fatty acids
What do fat droplets become?
Emulsion droplets through bile salts
What buds off of emulsion droplets?
Micelles
What do micelles becoome
FFA
Short Chain Fatty Acid Carbon Structure
Less than 12
How are long chain fatty acids distinct from short chains?
They are more than 12 carbons as well as they will be resterfied
What do long chain fatty acids regulate?
Triglycerides
What do enterocytes make
apoproteins
What complex forms VLDLs
apoproteins, triglycerides,phospholipids, and cholesterol
What does a complex of apoproteins, triglycerides,phospholipids, and cholesterol form?
VLDL or chylomicrons
What are fats inside endothelial cells broken down into?
glycerol and fatty acids
what does lipoprotein lipase do?
Breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids
How big are lymph vessels?
80 microns in diameter
why do chylomicrons go into lymph vessels?
because they are too big for capillary
what does VLDL stand for?
Very Low Density Lipoproteins
Key features of the absorptive state
anabolic processes
-net update of glucose liner
-some synthesis of amino acids
key features of post absorptive state
-catabolic processes
-break down glycogen
-breaks down protein
-breaks triglycerides into fatty acids
Where can glucose-6-phosphate go back to glucose?
In the liver
What is consumed when glucose is low
fatty acids
What does glucagon break down into
glucose-6-phosphate
What is it called when fatty acids are catabolized
Beta Oxidation
When is there high insulin or high glucagon?
There is high insulin during the absorptive phase and high glucagon during the postabsorptive phase
What does glucagon do(basic)
release stored sugars into bloodstream
what does insulin do(basic)
Allows cells to use sugar for energy
What two hormones help with the secretion of sex hormones(male)
FSH and LH
What surrounds the scrotum?
Tunica Dartos
What is the function of tunica dartos?
It functions as fibroelastic tissue and smooth muslce cells that increase or decrease surface area in response to temperature
What temperature does spem need to be produced at?
Slightly lower than the body’s temperature
What three componenets provide structural support for the testis
-Tunica Albugnuiea
-Mediastrium Testis
-Trabecula
Tunica Albugnuiea function
protects testis
Where is the mediastrium testis
center of testis
What does the trabecula in the tetis do?
It’s connective tissue that segments testis
What is the semiferous tuble the site of
spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis
How do Interstial cells(Leydig Cells) respond to LH
By producing testosterone
Epididymus components
-caput
-corpus
-cauda
What is the head of the epididymus called
the caput
what is the tail of the epididymus called?
The cauda
Where is sperm stored prior to ejaculation with passive movement of sperm?
In the epidiymus
WHere does the epdidymus empty into?
into the vas deferens
What is the vas defernes a part of?
THe spermatic cord
WHere is sperm when its ready to be ejaculated?
the vas deferens
where does the semiferous tubule empty into
the rete testis
what is the rete testis responsible for?
the production of sperm
What does the spermatic cord do?
raises and lowers the testis in response to heat
What does the paniniform plexus recieve and put away?
Recieves arterial blood and venous blood goes away
function of paniniform plexus
Allows for constant exchange of heat
Where do the two vas defernes merge?
At the ampulle
What are the 3 acessory organs of the male reproductie system>
-Semilinial vesicles
-bulbour ethral glands
-prostate
what do the accessory organs of the male reproductive system secrete?
semilinal plasma
THe three parts of the penis and what they are
–Crus(anchorage to the pelvis)
-Corpus(body)
-glans(head)
What surrounds the urethra of the penis
corpusspangiousum
What component fills with blood for erection?
corpuscavernosum
What stimulates the corpuscavernosum?
CNS
What do nerves in the penis release for dialation?
Nitric Oxide
What are the three main components of sperm?
-ovoid shaped head
-midpiece
-flagellum
What is primarily in the head of sperm?
the nucleus
What overlays the nucleus in the head of sperm?
The acrosome
What enzymes does the acrosome cap contain?
acrosin and hylavirnidase
Function of the tail of sperm
alot of mitochondira drive the flagella movement
subcomponents of the midpeice sperm tail
-proximal distol centrioles and coarse fibrils
What combination of hormones provide the environement for spermatogeneis?
FSH + Testosterone
What do sertoli cells do?
When testosterone is taken up it is converted to dihydrotestosterone that is more potent or more estrogen
Spermatogenesis
Mitosis for more stem cells that is constant throughout life
What does testosterone inhibit?
LH Secretion
what stimulates erthyroporetin in the kidneys
testosterone
what hormone decreases GnRH
Testosterone
What is the outer layer of the ovary?
Germinal epithelium
What provides surface protection to the ovary?
Tunica Albunguintea
Cite of gamateogenesis in the ovary
The cortex
What does the medella do as part of the ovary?
In charge of blood, nerves and lymph through the vilus
What does a female have at time of birth?
All primordial follicles
What is the fallopian tube also known as?
The oviduct
What opens into the oviduct
Infundibulum
What is the thin membrane a oviduct has?
Fimbria
2 sections of the oviduct
The ampulla half and the isthmus half
What is the isthmus the site of?
Site of fertilization
What is the periometoium a part of?
The uterus
What is the perimetoium?
The serous connective tissue that continues with mesometium
What is the myometium a part of?
The uterus
What kind of muscle is the myometium
Longitudinal and circular
Where does implantation start?
In the endometrium as part of the uterus
What are the 3 components of broad ligament
Mesmetioium
Mesosalphin
Mesovarium
What is the mesmetioium known as?
The uterus
What is the mesosalphin known as?
The oviduct
What is the mesovarium known as?
Ovaries
What opens as estrogen increases?
The cervix
Does the vagina have glands?
No
What kind of cells line the vaginal wall
Squamous epithelium
When does 1st meiosis occur for females?
Begins prior to birth but doesn’t complete until first period
When is meiosis 2 completed?
At fertilization
What kind of follicles compose follicular development
primary follicles
When does primordial follicle development start?
During follicular development
What layers are formed during follicular development?
Thea layers
When is the position of the oocyte created?
During follicular development
What kind of cells are primary follicles made of?
Flattened granulosa cells
What does the zona pellucide form?
Polysaccharide and glycoprotein cord
What does the theca interna produce?
Progesterone and testosterone
What does the theca externa provide?
A barrier
What do granulosa cells secrete?
Estrogen and inhibin
What does cumulus oopherus mean?
How granulosa cells surround the oocyte
What DEVELOPS around an oocyte?
Corona radiata
What is a wasted oocyte known as? (Dies out of follicle)
Atresia
Does negative or positive feedback occur when there’s low estrogen?
Negative
What increases just prior to ovulation? What kind of feedback is this?
Estrogen, positive feedback
What is the follicle replaced by in the lunteal phase?
Follicle is replaced by corpus lutenum
What hormones are made during the lunteal phase
Progesterone and some estrogen
Where does the oocyte go during the lunteal phase?
Goes from ovary to uterus
What tissues are broken down during ovulation?
Metalloproteinase connective tissues
When does LH surge?
During ovulation
What color is the corpus lutenum?
Yellow
What is the corpus hemmoreghum derived from?
Granula cells
What is the purpose of granulosa cells surrounding an oocyte?
To provide nutrients to the oocyte
What hormones are secreted with increased estrogen?
GnRH and LH
Luteinzation
Granulosa cells or theca are developed into corpus lutenum
Why does FSH decrease prior to it increasing?
To prevent second egg from releasing
What has a bigger spike, LH or FSH?
LH
What spikes first? Progesterone or estrogen
Estrogen and then progesterone
During what phase is estrogen dominant?
Follicular
During what phase is progesterone dominant?
Luteal
Order of the menstrual cycle
-Menses
-Proliferative
-Ovulation
-Secretory
What happens during menses
Uterine lining is shed which causes bleeding
What happens during the proliferative phase?
Epithelial cells reproduce to repair uterine lining
What happens during the ovulation phase
Ovum is released from ovary and goes through fallopian tube
What happens during the secretory phase?
Uterine prepares for pregnancy by growing thicker and developing a blood supply that then is depleted right before menses
During what phases is the ovary involved in?
Follicular and luteal
What phases is the uterus involved in?
Proliferative and secretory
Where does sperm first bind to?
The zona pellucia
Where is the zona pellucida
It surrounds the ovum
Where does capacitation occur?
In the distal oviduct next to the uterus
After capitation where does sperm move from the oviduct to?
The site of fertilization
What does the acrosome (outer layer of sperm head) release in order to penetrate egg?
A rosin and hylaluronidase
What is the oocyte membrane also known as?
Vitelline membrane
What two things are created at fertilization?
Make and female pro nucleuses
What do the male and female pronucleases combine to make?
The zygote
What is the perivitelline space?
The space between the oocyte and zona pellucida
What is polyspermy
When two or more sperm bind to the egg
Why is polyspermy a problem?
It causes miscarriages
What is shedded at the end of meiosis 2?
The second polar body
After 16-32 cells are created from the zygote, what is created?
Morula
When the morula is compacted what does it become?
It becomes the blastocyst
What two cell types is the blastocyst
-trophoblast
-inner cell mass
What does the trophoblast give rise to?
Gives rise to placenta
What does the inner cell mass give rise to?
It gives rise to the fetus
What “hatches” after the blastocyst is fully formed?
The zona pellucida
What is the endometrial stroma?
Connective tissue that differentiates into decidua
What are the two types of trophoblast?
Syncitiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast
How does the syncitiotrophoblast become a placenta?
Through stem cells
What does cytotrophoblast form?
Columns of placental villi
What’s part of the inner cells mass?
Fetus
Yolk Sac
Amnism
What do syncitiotrophoblasts secrete?
Secrete chorionic gonadotropin that help recognize maternal pregnancy
Is hcg leudotropic?
Yes
What happens if hcg is not present?
The corpus luteum recesses (leudiolysis)
What does HCG help maintain?
Progesterone prodcuction
During pregnancy what hormones spike and immoderately fall, or remain constant (between estrogen, HCG, and Progesterone)
HCG spikes at beginning, Progesterone and Estrogen grow gradually
What is in charge of progesterone production in the third trimester?
The placenta
How human arteries and veins does the chorionic plate
2 arteries and 1 vein
What does the basal plate refer to?
The maternal side of the placenta
Preeclampsia
Chorionic Villi is not low turgidity thus less blood is able to make its way to the fetus
When does the Ductus Venous open
It opens when there is an issue with the placenta, thus the blood goes to the vena cava rather than the liver
Ductus arteriosis function
To shunt blood from pulmonary arteries to aorta to bypass lungs
What is the foreman ovale?
A hole between left and right atria prior to birth
How many stages are there of labor?
3
What happens in the first stage of labor?
Rhythmic contractions of the uterus that make the baby face towards the cervix
What happens in stage 2 of labor?
The baby tries to exit through reflex contractions
What happens during stage 3 of the labor
Expulsion of the placenta
