Exam 2 Flashcards
(265 cards)
1
Q
Muscle Classifications
A
Skeletal Muscle
Smooth Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
2
Q
Myocyte
A
Muscle Cell
3
Q
Sarcomere
A
Individual contractile unit in skeletal muscle
4
Q
Sarcolemna
A
Plasma membrane of skeletal muscle cells
5
Q
Myrofibrils
A
Give structure to muscle cells through thin actin filaments and thick myosin filaments
6
Q
Epimysium
A
Connective tissue sheath that encases the entire muscle (skeletal)
7
Q
Perinmysium
A
Surrounds muscle bundle (skeletal)
8
Q
Endomysium
A
Surrounds myoctes (skeletal)
9
Q
What is skeletal muscle in between?
A
2 Z lines
10
Q
sarcoplasmic reticulum
A
smooth ER (skeletal)
stores calcium
stores glycogen
11
Q
Capacity of mitochondria in skeletal muscle
A
Contains many mitochondria
12
Q
Misconception about contraction of muscle
A
A common misconception is that muscle shortens when contracted
13
Q
How does contraction occur (simply)?
A
Through the sliding of thick Myosin filaments and thin Actin filaments
14
Q
What is the result of bases in contraction?
A
Shortens Distance of Z-lines and all bands except for the A band
15
Q
Tropomyesin
A
blocks the binding cite on actin for myosin and inhibit interaction when relaxed
16
Q
Properties of Myosin
A
2 Heavy Chains and 4 Light chains
17
Q
Troponins
A
Part of Actin
Troponin C
Troponin I
Troponin T
18
Q
Troponin C
A
binds calcium
19
Q
Troponin I
A
Binds Actin
20
Q
Troponin T
A
Tropomyesin
21
Q
Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle
A
Low Cytoplasmic Ca
Myosin head is energized through ADP + Pi bound to the head
22
Q
Cross Bridge Cycle Purpose
A
Contraction of muscle
23
Q
Steps of Cross Bridge Cycle
A
1.) Low Ca
2.) Energized myosin head (ADP + Pi)
3.) Releases Ca from sarcoplasmic reticulum(Goes from 10^-7 M to 10^-5 M)
4.) Ca binds to troponin C
5.) Open actin binding cites
6.) Myosin binds to actin
7.) ADP + Pi come off of myosin and allows for myosin to move
8.) ATP binds to myosin and allows for myosin to release from actin
9.) ATP goes back to ADP + Pi which then in turn renergizes myosin head
24
Q
What triggers a new Cross Bridge Cycle
A
High amounts of Ca and the renewal of ATP in (ADP and Pi)
25
What receptor is part of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and what is it responsible for?
The ryadine receptor is a calcium channel that connects to a neuromuscular junction
26
Motor Unit
Motor neuron and skeletal muscle fibers it innervates
27
Motor neuron rates of connection
1 motor neuron innervates many muscle fibers however one muscle fiber is innervated by only one motor neuron
28
Within a whole muscle are there many motor units or few?
many
29
What is a neuromusclular junction
Its the interaction between the skeletal muscle and axon terminus
30
Motor end plate
Region of post synaptic membrane
31
Whats the ratio of neuromuscular cell to neuromuscular junction?
1:1
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Traverse tublues
Contains the DHP receptor
33
DHP receptor
Part of the neuromuscular junction of the transverse tubules and it is a volted gated calcium channel that is connected to the Sarcoplasmic reticulum
34
What do neuromuscular vesicles contain?
Acetyl Choline
35
What is the relationship between the relative refractory period and the pumping of calcium
The speed of pumping calcium into the sarcoplasmic reticulum is slower than the refractory period
36
What happens as soon as calcium is released
it's pumped back to SR
37
What does smooth muscle not have in comparison to skeletal?
Transverse tubules
Troponins
neuromuscular junction
38
What does smooth muscle have instead of troponins
varicosities
39
What are the two types of smooth muscle?
Multi unit and single unit
40
Multi Unit Smooth Muscle Loc.
In walls of large arteries and upper large airways in lung
41
Single Unit Smooth Muscle(loc)
In digestive tract, in walls of uterus, contains gap junctions
42
What is spontaneous activity known as as part of a neurotransmitter in smooth muscle?
Myogenic activity
43
How does contraction in smooth muscle
its a calcium mediated event that comes out of cell and binds to calmodulm instead of troponin C
44
What does calmodulm activate?
Activates myosin light chain kinase
45
How does calcium enter axon terminals?
Through voltage gated calcium channels (DHP receptors)
46
What does calcium trigger the release of from axon terminals?
Acetyl Choline
47
Where does acetyl choline diffuse in muscle fiber?
From axon terminals to moter end plates
48
Where does acetyl choline bind to and what does this then allow?
It binds to nicotonic receptors on the motor end plate which then increases the permeability of sodium and potassium
49
Where does end plate action potential travel along?
T-Tubules
50
What's the purpose of calcium binding to troponin on thin filaments?
Causes tropomyesin to move away from its blocking position and thereby help start the crossbridge cycle
51
How does the action potential across T-tubules induce travel of calcium
DHP receptors pull open and allow the release of Calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
52
What form of energy is used for thick filaments to bind to actin?
ADP
53
What breaks down the linkages between myosin and actin?
ATP
54
What energies the myosin crossbridge
ATP --> ADP
55
What does the cycle of the cross bridge cycle induce?
The sliding of actin and myosin
56
Where does calcium go after the cross bridge cycle is complete?
The sarcoplasmic reticulum
57
What happens as soon as calcium is removed from troponin?
Restores the blocking action of tropomyesin on actin and allows muscle fibers to relax
58
Cardiomyocytes physical components
Involuntary striated muscle
More stellated
branches
fibrous cards
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How many nuclei are present in cardiomyocytes?
1 or two nuclei
60
Whats very similar between cardiomyocytes and skeletal muscle
The cross bridge cycle
61
Cell to Cell grouping in cardiomyoctyes
contain gap junctions and are intercalated discs
62
What determines the rate of depolarization in cardiomyocytes?
Population of cells with most unstable resting potential
63
Describe the refactory period of cardiomyocytes
It's protracted and causes obigatory relaxation of cardiac muscle
64
What does the excitation/depolarization of skeletal muscle or cardiomyocytes allow for?
The opening of T-tubules and Calcium channels
65
Pericardium Structure
Contains serous fluid
Parietal (Outer)
Visceral(Inner)
66
Myocardium
True Heart Muscle
67
Endocardium
Endothelial cells continuous with blood cells
68
Atria
Receive Venous Blood
69
Ventricles
Much Thicker walls
pump blood throughout body
70
Atrio-ventricular Left and Right differences
Right AV is tricuspid, Left is bicuspid
71
Chordae Tendinae
Anchor free margin of valve
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Papillory
Anchors chordae tendinae
73
Semi-lunar (Heart) Left and Right
Trans-cuspid
Separate ventricles and arteries
Right: Right ventricle and pulmonary artery
Left: Left ventricle and aorta
74
Sinoatrial node
Pacemaker (Responsible for heartbeat)
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Atrioventricular Node
Promotes healthy conduction pathways in heart
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Bundle of HIS
Branches from antrioventricular node
branches from left and right bundles
77
Purkenji Fibers
conduct electrical stimulus
78
SA node stabilization
acetyl choline via muscarnic receptors which then stabilizes the node
79
Norepenephrine via adrenergic receptors
increases contraction
80
Pathway of Circulation
Vena cava --> RA --> Tricuspid Valve --> RV --> Pulmonary Valve --> Pulmonary A --> Lungs --> Pulmonary Veins --> LA --> Mitral Valve --> LV --> Aortic Valve --> Aorta
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Diastole
Ventricles are relaxed, fills blood
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Systole
Ventricles are contracted, pushes out blood
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Lubb
Closure of Atrioventricular valves (tricuspid/bicuspid)
84
Dupp
Closure of Semilunar valves (Aortic/pulmonary)
85
Types of Murmurs
Stenosis and Insufficieny
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Stenosis
The valve is stiff, doesn't totally open, in diastole its heard in the atrioventricular, during semilunar its systolic
87
Insufficiency
Not closing completely, back flow, AV = systolic, semilunar = diastolic
88
What changes in the heart during a contraction cycle
Pressure and Volume
89
What does cardiac output = to
Heart Rate * Stroke Volume
90
What's normally the ratio of increasing heart rate or stroke volume?
Both will increase when increasing one
91
Steps of Regulation for the heart
Increase in atrial pressure --> Baroreceptors --> Afferent nerve endings --> medulla--> efferent nerve endings --> Heart
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Baroreceptors
Sensory nerve endings, detects increase in pressure. Is felt through carotid sims and the left aorta that goes to the brain
93
Cardioinhibitory Center
In the medulla, Vagal output to SA node, reduces cardiac output
94
Vasomotor
In the medulla, increases cardiac output through speeding up the tachycardia with epinephrine
95
Starlings law of the heart
Strength of contraction during systole is proportional to ventricular distension at the end of the diastole
96
What neurotransmitters increase and decrease HR
Norep. inc.
Acetyl Choline dec.
97
What will happen if you increases the sympathetic output of norep
Increases the strength of contraction which will then increase stroke volume
98
Properties of Major Arteries
Fibrolastic Walls
Allows stretch and recoil
Less Neural Control
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Arterioles Properities
Tunic Media
Less Stretch and Recoil
Sympathetic Output
100
Tunic Media
Smooth muscle layer in Arterioles
101
Sympathetic Output in Arterioles
Causes waves of constriction (made of endothelial cells)
102
Is blood pressure greater or lesser in the pulmonary in comparison to systemic?
Pulmonary Pressure is less than systemic circulation
103
In response to pulsation contraction of the heart:
Pulses of pressure move throughout the vasculature, decreasing in amplitutde with distance.
104
Tonic wave of constriction
A tone provided to constricted or non constricted valves
105
Major drop in systemic blood pressure occurs in ....
arteries
106
What regulates downstream pressures and flow rates?
Dynamic changes in vasodilation and vasoconstriction
107
Capillaries Properties
Lack smooth muscle
precapillary sphincters/shunts determine volume of blood capillaries receive
108
As cross sectional area increases what decreases?
velocity
109
Vasoconstriction
Increases blood pressure
110
vasodilation
decreases blood pressure with the widening of blood vessles
111
How do arterioles correlate with constriction and dialation?
With constriction, blood pressure decreases and is slightly reduced with dialation.
112
Starlings Law of Filtration: Forces favoring filtration
Hydrostatic Blood Pressure
Collolial/osmotic pressure of tissue
113
Starlings Law of Filtration: Forces opposing filtration
Colloidial/ osmotic pressure of blood
hydrostatic pressure in tissue
114
Veins/Venuoles Properties
Some Smooth muscle
some sympathetic N.S. control that's much less than arterioles
115
Whats in veins walls
valves and flaps
116
What percent of blood is in the venous system
60%
117
What components lead to an increase of blood pushed back to the heart
Skeletal muscle tone
Abdominal Pump
Thoracic Pump
118
What changes blood pressure in the venous system?
Abdominal Pump and Thoracic Pump
119
What does vessel diameter determine?
Constriction increases pressure/resistance
120
What does strength of heart contraction determine
higher pressure
121
What does the Vessel length determine
longer the greater the resistance
122
Degree of branching, what changes when degree changes
decreases velocity and pressure
123
Blood visocisty
Resistance of fluids, higher viscosity means thicker blood
124
Baroreceptors signals to
carotid sinus
aoritic arch
left and right atria
left ventricle
125
Components of neural control
vasomoter center and cardioinhibitory
126
What is the neural control center mediated by
medulla
127
What ahppens when the sympathetic system is inhibited
parasympathetic is excited
128
This is produced by endothelial cells and nerve cells and is used as a vasodilator
Nitric Oxide
129
Vasopressin
An anti-diaharettic and vasoconstrictor
130
Anigotensin 2
circiulatory vasoconstrictor
131
Hemorrhages
cause decrease in arterial pressure
132
How do you fix hemorrhages
By increasing sympathetic output which my decrease P.S. output
133
Relationship between blood volume pressure and urine
as blood volume pressure goes down urinary loss increases
134
What's in plasma?
Water
Ions
Proteins
Nutrients
Hormones
Wastes
135
What is a Hematocrit
Assess Red blood cell percentage in a given sample
136
Formed elements in blood
Euthrocytes(RBC)
Leukocytes(WBC)
Platelets
137
What are red blood cells also known as?
Euthrocytes
138
What are white blood cells also known as?
Leukocytes
139
How is O2 restored in the kidneys?
Through secretion of erythropoietin
140
Kinds of Leukocytes, and their percent appearance
Neutrophils (50%)
Eosinophils (1-4%)
Basophils(.1-.3%)
141
Where are formed elements formed?
Bone Marrow
142
Initial sympathetic output to cause vasoconstriction
Myogenic activity of smooth muscle
143
What does myogenic mean
can contract on its own
144
How long does the inital sympathetic output to cause vasoconstriction last?
20 minutes
145
The initial sympathetic output to cause vasoconstriction allows for what formation?
Platelet plug formation
146
What can plaetelets stick to?
exposed collagen fibers
147
Why does platelets secret ADP
to make platelets more stick
148
why do platelets secrete thromboxane A2
to transform more platelets
149
Why do platelets secrete serotonin?
To make platelets more sitcky
150
What is platelet factor 3?
It's secreted by platelets and is involved in the clotting process
151
What 3 items are responsible for clot formation
thromboplastin, platelet factor 3 and calcium
152
What do clot formation items combine to form
prothrombin activator
153
Prothrombin
Plasma Protein
154
What is required to make prothrombin in liver
vitamin K
155
What does thrombin clear to form fibrin
fibrinogen
156
Threads of fibrin
will form loose clot
157
What does factor 13a do?
Cross-links fibrin threads to form firm clot
158
What does plasminogen do?
Formas PLasmin and breaks down fibrin
159
How do you fix hemorrhages
By increasing sympathetic output which may decrease P.S. output
160
Plasmin Inhibitors
Try to combat plasmin so it doesnt break down fibrin as fast
161
What kind of cells are lymphatic capillaries composed of?
Epithelial
162
How are lymphatic capillaries able to move around substances that normal capillaries could not?
By being packed less tightly
163
What structural component of lymphatic capillaries cause substances to go towards the cardiovascular system
Being "blind" at one end
164
What vein is in the right lymphatic duct?
Right Subclavien Vein
165
What vein is in the Thoracic Duct Left
Subclavian Vein
166
Function of the central lacteal
drain digestive system
167
Where is heumoral immunity present in
antibodies
168
Where do antibodies act as receptors
on cell surface
169
Lymph node components (2)
Macrophages and lympocytes
170
Immunogloblin
proteins that function as antibodies
171
How do lymphocytes become a T Cell or a B cell
through the bone marrow
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T-Cells play in the immune system
Binds to cells or virus and tries to kill it
173
How do B cell play out in immune system
By becoming plasma cells when activated by antigens they produce antibodies
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Helper t cell recpetors
interleukins
interferons
inner necrosis factor
175
What do helper t cells activated
B cells and the cytotoxic component on t cells
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How are T cells helpers activated
by class 2 histocomabatability complex
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What kind of cells can B cells be?
Plasma cells and memory cells
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What kind of cells can B cells be?
Plasma cells and memory cells
179
Function of respiratory system
Provide Oxygen
Eliminate CO2
Regulates pH in relation to kidneys
Speech
Defends against microbes
dissolves blood clots in systemic veins
Influences artrial concentrations of chemical messengers
180
What are the two kinds of respiration
Internal and External
181
Function of external respiration
Moves O2 from lungs to blood and moves O2 from blood to tissues along with CO2 from cells into blood
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What is considered the active form of breathing
Inspiration
183
How is maximal inspiration achieved?
Through external intercostals and the usage of muscles connected to the head and neck
184
Air passage pathway
Trachea--> Bronchi --> Bronchioles --> Terminal Bronchioles --> Respiratory Bronchioles --> Alveolar ducts --> alveolar sacs
185
What are the two zones in a lung?
Conducting and respiratory
186
Where is the intrepleural fluid
between the throacic wall and lung
187
What does the fluid inside and outside the pleural cavity function as?
Lubricant to reduce friction
188
Where is the parietal portion in the respiratory system
lining the thoracic wall
189
What does the visceral portion line in the respiratory system
Lungs
190
What is the charge of pressure in the pleural cavity relative to the atmospheric
It's negative
191
During expiration what is the reduction of mercury?
-3 mm Hg
192
During quiet inspiration what is the reduction of mercury?
-10 mm Hg
193
During maximal inspiration what is the reduction of mercury?
-33 mm Hg
194
When does the thorax expand?
During inspiration
195
What happens after the lungs expand in inspiration?
Air in alveolar becomes compressed and alvelic pressure becomes greater than atmospheric
196
What is the number of alveolis proportional to?
metabolic rate
197
What is considered to be the passive form of breathing?
Expiration
198
When does maximal expiration occur?
During intercoastels
199
What happens when the chest wall recoils inward during expiration
Transpulmonary pressure moves back towards preinspiration value
200
When is the air in alveolis compressed
during expiration and after the recoil of lungs
201
What is the most abundant pnemocyte?
Type 1
202
What are type 1 pnemocytes
epithelial cells lining air facing surfaces
203
What are type 2 pnemocytes
THey are producers of surfactant
204
What is surfactant
A detergent like substance that prevents air sacs from collapsing
205
what would you provide to someone with respiratory distress syndrome
synthetic surfactant
206
What is k in the gas exchange equation
diffusibility constant
207
What happens to K as the surface area increases?
K increases
208
What happens to k as the thickness of diffusion barrier increases
K decreases
209
Pressure differential
The difference between circulating O2 and O2 going into blood and the difference between CO2 ciruclating and the CO2 leaving the blood
210
Ideally what would you want your PO2 to look like?
High range of O2
211
How is oxygen transported through the blood?
Hemoglobin
212
How many globins are there
4
213
what subsets are the 4 globins split in
2 alpha 2 beta
214
How many molecules of O2 can each hemoglobin carry?
4
215
How is the affinity of hemoglobin decreased?
Increased pH
Increased CO2
Increased temperature
Increased DPG concentration
216
How does hemoglobin bind to oxygen
through Fe^2+
217
What is Vital Capacity
Maximal inspiration + maximal expiration
218
What does Tidal Volume include
Inspiratory Reserve volume and expiratory reserve volume
219
Residual Volume
Air left over after maximal expiration
220
What is the primary controller for breathing?
Medulla
221
What are the two respiratory centers in the medulla
Inspiratory and expiratory centers
222
Phrenic Nerve(C2-C3)
They are spinal motor fibers that go to diaphragm
223
Where can spinal motor fibers branches go to
external intercostals
224
Function of lung stretch receptors
inhibition of phrenic nerve output in inspiratory for relaxation
225
What causes a stimulation for inspiration
Decreased PO2 increased pH or increased CO2
226
Erythropoeitin function
stimulation of red blood cell production
227
Gluconeurogenesis
generation of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors
228
What hormones does the kidneys produce
erythropoeitin, renin and 125 Vitamin D
229
What does Vitamin D do in the kidneys
calcium balance
230
Function of renin
influences blood pressure and sodium
231
Basic renal functions
regulates water, removes metabolic wastes from blood and foreign chemicals that is then later excreted into urine
232
Where is transitional epithelium?
In the bladder, it helps with the expansion and contraction of the bladder
233
synonym for micturition
urination
234
What inhibits micturition in the bladder
smooth muscles sphincter
235
Is the bladder PNS or CNS
PNS
236
Apperance of renal cortex
granular
237
apperance of renal medulla
striated
238
function of renal pelvis
where urine is collected
239
What is a nephron
The functional unit of the kidney
240
What are the two types of nephrons?
Cortical and Juxtomedallory
241
Where does the initial filtration occur in the kidneys
Renal Corpuscle
242
Where is the gilomerculas?
In the kidneys
243
Gilomerulas function
Capilllary bed with afferent and efferent arterioles
244
What two componenets are in the renal corpuscle
Bowmans capsule and Giomerulas
245
Where in the kidneys is the bowmans capsule
They overlay glomerular capilaries
246
what do the slits on bowmans capusle allow for
filtration of blood from gilomerular
247
What main component is inside the Distal Conulted Tube
The Macula Densa
248
Function of Macula Densa
To sense osumularity of the tubule fluid
249
Juxtaglomecular Cells Function
Secrete renin
250
Renin function
In renal system, it cleans angiotensionogen into angiotensionogen 1
251
Drop in afferent arterial pressure or low plasma Na triggers what?
Triggers the mascula Densa due to low osmolarity and juxtoglomecular cells
252
Steps before micturition
Glomerular filtration
Tubular secretion
Tubular reabsorption
253
What favors glomerular capillary filtration?
Glomerular capillary blood pressure
254
What opposes glomerular capillary filtration
Fluid pressure in bowman’s space and osmotic force from protein in plasma
255
What is the colloidal pressure in bowman’s capsule
0 mm Hg
256
Reabsorption rates greatest to least
Glucose > Water > Na > Urea
257
What is mainly responsible for reabsorption?
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
258
How is glucose reabsorbed?
Through secondary active transport of SGLT2 as part of Na cotransport
259
What component in the brain stimulates calcium reabsorption
Parathyroid
260
What is the main anti-diuretic hormone?
Vasopressin
261
What percentage of water reabsorption occurs in collecting ducts?
Less than 15 percent
262
What is the primary driver of aldosterone secretion
Potassium concentration in blood
263
Atrial Naturietic Peptide (ANP)
Inhibits aldosterone
264
What happens when you inhibit aldosterone
Inhibits reabsorption of Na
265
Why is it important to excrete Na for high blood pressure?
To excrete water along with the Na
