Exam 3 Flashcards
personality
a characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving that is unique to each individual, and remains relatively consistent over time and situations
trait
a characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking or feeling
idiographic approach
creating detailed description of a specific persons unique personality characteristics in an attempt to understand that person better
nomothetic approach
examining personality in large groups of people, with the aim of making generalizations about personality structure
i.e. “what personality characteristics are linked to excessive alcohol consumption”
Psychodynamic theories of personality
relate personality to the interplay of conflicting ‘energy dynamics’ within the individual
What is freud’s legacy
he started psychotherapy
the mind consists of 3 structures (freud)
the id, ego and superego
Psychodynamic theory
basic representation of the mind
the idea that we have an unconscious and conscious mind
most of our thinking is in the unconscious (think about the iceberg)
unconscious mind
a vast and powerful but inaccessible part of your consciousness, operating without your conscious endorsement or will to influence and guide your behaviours
conscious mind
your current awareness, containing everything you are aware of right now
we are not aware of the push-pull that we go through every day
only a small part of mental life is conscious
id
represents a collection of basic biological drives, including those directed toward sex and aggression
please principle: do what feels good
superego
comprised of our values and moral standards
internalized values telling us what we ought to do (our conscience)
ego
the decision maker, frequently under tension, trying to reconcile the opposing urges of the id and superego
do vs. don’t
operates on the reality principle
anxiety
is produced when the components are imbalanced (when the id and superego are in conflict)
“personality” (Freud)
emerges from the interplay of the id, ego and superego.
defender mechanism
are unconscious strategies the Ego uses to keep the Id’s impulses out of conscious awareness and balance the competing demands of pleasure, reality and morality
denial
when people refuse to admit something unpleasant is happening, that they have a problem, or that they are feeling a forbidden emotion
reaction formation
behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one’s true feelings
expressing feelings of purity when experiencing unconscious feelings about sex
rationalization
creating false but plausible exudes to justify unacceptable feelings or behaviours
repression
keeping distressing desires or wishes from conscious awareness by burying it in the unconscious
from Freud’s “the Id and the Ego”
projection
seeing one’s own traits in other people, especially if seeing that threatening trait in others helps the individual to avoid recognizing it in their self
what should you beware of with personality quizzes?
view them as a source of amusement
they are not accurate
good research into personality produces a much more nuanced view than just “you’re this type of that type”
displacement
altering the target of one’s urges
i.e. angry at boss: come home and yell at children instead
catharsis
that one can reduce these anxieties by “working them out” on unrelated targets
identification
alleviate concerns about self-worth by unconsciously assuming the characteristics of another person
this can be good!
i.e. identification with one’s parents results in the formation of the superego
sublimation
transforming unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable or even pro-social alternatives
i.e. aggressive impulses channeled into sports
or
could have lustful feelings that are channeled into a work of art with subtle or not-so-subtle erotic undertones
what are the 8 defence mechanisms
repression
projection
displacement
reaction formation
regression
rationalization
identification
sublimation
empirical evidence (Baumeister, Dale, and Sommer, 1998)
suggested a slightly modified idea:
suggest that defence mechanisms protect self esteem— keeps us feeling good about ourselves
they don’t prevent aggressive or sexual urges that violate one’s standards
the authors suggested that when viewed this way, there is empirical evidence for reaction formation and projection but not for displacement and sublimation
false consensus effect
overestimating how many people share your traits, opinions, preferences, and motivations
i.e. people with bad behaviours such as cheating on their taxes estimate those behaviours are more common
How does personality develop? (freud)
freud had the idea that many of the problems that people have with their personalities are due to unresolved issues growing up
Stage theory of psychosexual development (freud):
freud believed that childhood could be divided into a series of important stages that focused on sexual energy, which he called “libido”
each developmental stage, the libido manifests in particular areas of the body, characterized by certain psychological conflicts that need to be resolved.
the goal is to transition from one stage to the next.
Freuds psychosexual stages:
Stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, latency, genital
A series of different forms of sexual energy into which personality develops as the child matures
conflict and anxiety at each stage must be resolved or he believd you would be fixated at that level
What are the 3 characteristics of each of freuds psychosexual stages?
A physical focus
A psychological theme
An adult character type
Fixation
a pre-occuption with obtaining the pleasure associated with a particular stage
Oral stage
Timeframe: 0-18 months
Physical pleasure focus: actions of the mouth–sucking, chewing, swallowing
Psychological theme: basic dependence & trust
Anal Stage
Timeframe:18-36 months
Physical: Bowel elimination & control
Psychologial: sense of control & competence
Oral Sadistic
a neglected baby will be mistrustful of others
envy (wanting more), manipulation of others (using the mouth to hurt), and suspiciousness
Phallic Stage
Timeframe: 3-6 years
Physical: curiosity about one’s own body and others bodies (parents, siblings, peers)
Psychological: stage is necessary for moral identity and superego formation—identification with parents; internalization of parents values
Adult Type:
Latency Stage
Timeframe: from 6 until puberty
Physical: the sexual and aggressive drives are less active and there is little in the way of psychosexual conflict
period of relative calm
Genital Stage
Timeframe: from puberty onwards
Physical: is on the gentians and partnered intercourse
adult sexual experiences, focused on other people
Penis Envy
when girls discover that they do not have a penis.
girls redirect their sexual interest to their fathers, and then to men in general, because having a child with a man provides the girl with a penis (kind of)
“that seems great, why don’t I have one”
Oedipus Complex
children develop sexual feelings for the opposite sex parent at this stage
erotic attachment to the parent of opposite sex and feel some hostility to the same-sex parent
Castration Anxiety
boys are distressed that their mother doesn’t have a penis and assume that their father cut it off
they fear that their father will cut off their penis too
“she doesn’t have one? how did she lose it?”
Phallic Character
in men, someone who is vain of over-ambitious— they continue to be focused on their self and self-pleasure
In women, someone who is overly dominant over men or unusually seductive—argued to be rooted in continued penis envy
The Psychological theme
is the maturation and creation of life
not just about reproduction, but also about intellectual and artistic creativity (the products of sublimated libido)
The genital personality is not fixated at an earlier stage
this is the person who has worked it all out
this person is psychologically well balanced and adjusted
according to freud to achieve this state you need to have a balance of both love and work
Criticisms of Freud
-lack of testability
-drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients
-basing theories of personality development on retrospective accounts of adults
-too much emphasis on parental influence
-sexist (women = penis envy)
Phrenology
Franz Joseph Gall thought bumps on the head = IQ
Gall focused his attention upon the detailed configuration of the human head
Myers-Briggs Type Inventory–based on Carl Jung’s writings:
he argued that people have preferences about how they use their mental capacities
i.e maybe you have a preference for taking in information
Jung suggested we are all different types
introverts vs extroverts
perceivers vs sensor
thinker vs feeler
judging vs intuition
Problems with the Myers-Briggs
lack of reliability
lack of validity
traits do not fall into categories
incomplete description of personality
MBTI scores are unreliable
as many as 3/4 of test takers get a different type when tested a second time
partly because the test assigns you to one type or the other, but people don’t work that way; traits are normally distributed
A physical focus (freud)
where the child’s energy is concentrated and their gratification obtained
A psychological theme (freud)
this is related to both the physical focus and the demands being made on the child by the outside world as he/she develops
there can be 2 extremes in psychological reaction: either doing too much or not enough of what is ideal
An adult character type (freud)
in the first three stages this adult character type is one that is related to being fixated or stuck at that stage
if a person doesn’t resolve these, they will always have problems relating to those issues
orally-fixated person
the infant who is neglected (insufficiently fed) or who is over-protected (over-fed) in the course of being nursed
oral dependent
while a coddled or over-fulfilled baby will find it hard to cope with a world that can’t meet all its demands
dependence, indulgence, entitlement, immaturity
anal personality types
which type demands, in part, upon whether parents were too strict or too lenient with toilet training and other issues of impulse control
anal retentive
need too much control “holding in”
creates rigidity, inflexibility, stinginess: an obsession with cleanliness, order and control
anal expulsive
problem with “letting it out” — sloppiness and/or a general disregard for order
Why do the MBTI tests have no scientific basis?
the categories are mutually exclusive
e.g. thinking vs feeling
is it really the case that you either like thinking or feelings?
Former effect (sometimes called the Barnumb effect)
the tendency to see ourselves in vague or general statements
after the famous catchphrase attributed to P.T. Barnum: “there’s a sucker born every minute”
why is Myers-Briggs popular?
-offers simplistic answers (“you’re this type”)
-descriptions are vague, hard to argue with
-results are usually positive: people like being told they’re outgoing, idealistic, thinkers, feelers, etc
Gordan Allport
One of the most influential psychologists in the empirical study of personality
in the 1930s, he tallied nearly 18,000 English words that could be used to describe an individuals physical and psychological attributes
organized them into groups
personality trait
a persons habitual patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving
i.e. being shy
central traits
aspects of personality that reflect a characteristic way of behaving, dealing with other and reacting to new situations
secondary traits
changeable aspects of personality
factor analysis
statistical method for taking a number of wider characteristics, turn it into one “core” concept
often used to identify clusters of behaviours that are measured by a common underlying factor
i.e. an agreeable person might be someone who is helpful, liked and supportive
Raymond Cattell
used factor analysis to narrow the 17,953 traits down to key 16 personality traits
the 16 he thought were most important descriptors of personality
psychotism
vulnerability to breaks from reality or for rule breaking, and aggression
more drug friendly, care less about cleanliness, and prefer to go their own way rather than follow society’s structures
based on testosterone levels
extraversion
tendency to be out-going. Energized by social interaction
level of arousal (like to be around things that raise arousal, parties, etc)
Neuroticism
negative emotionality
tendency to be anxious, nervous and suspicious
activation threshold in sympathetic Nervous System (fight or flight)
What did Hans Eysenck change about Cattell’s theory of personality traits?
he changed it from 16 key personality traits to 3 “superfactors”:
Psychoticism
Extraversion
Neuroticism
The Big Five
McCrae and Costa found that personality could be reduced to 5 major dimensions:
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
openness
openness to experience versus resistance to new experience
interested in trying new things, curiosity, imagination
associated with liberal (rather than conservative) political attitudes
Conscientiousness
conscientiousness versus impulsiveness
disciplined, well organized, punctual, dependable
associated with positive health related behaviours, longevity, and high levels of achievement (higher GPAs)
extraversion
extraversion versus introversion
outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, assertive, gregarious
linked with more happiness
agreeableness
agreeable versus antagonism
sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest
associated with empathy
Neuroticism
Neurotic versus emotional stability
anxious, self conscious, moodiness (emotional instability)
associated with divorce
what is the “sixth factor” that has been considered to add to the big 5?
Honestly-Humility
High HH= sincere, honest, faithful, and modest
Low HH=deceitful, greedy, and pompous
what did they find about personality and behaviour?
the assumption was that personality dispositions have strong generalized, causal effects on behaviour
personality does not determine behaviour at all
but our behaviour is very different depending on the situation
what’s important is states
social-cognitive theories
proposed that the real consistency came from peoples personalities shaping and being shaped by the situations they encounter
situations and social learning
people display different behaviours in different contexts
central personality traits are acquired from learning history and expectations/beliefs
acknowledgement that people can have a core set of traits and their behaviour can vary across situations
state
a temporary physical or psychological engagement that influences behaviour
what are the stable parts of ourselves called?
“traits” or “dispositions”
trait self esteem
a more stable quality that describes people’s general self evaluations
(won’t change over time really)
state self esteem
refers to how people feel in the moment, how they feel right now
this may fluctuate over the period of the day or even shorter periods
what are the 4 aspects of situations that influence how personality traits are expressed?
Locations (being at work, school or home)
Associations (being with friends, alone or with family)
Activities (awake, rushed, studying)
Subjective states (mad, sick, happy)
Mischief argued that situations create states, which are much more powerful than personality
reciprocal determinism
describes the interaction of mutual influence of behaviour, internal personal factors, and environmental factors; “personalities” are based on these interactions
the two way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits
personality is not something “inside” the person, but rather “between” the person and the environment
interaction of individuals and environment: internal personal factors
different people choose different environments
personalities shape how people interpret and react to events
personalities help create situations to which people react
culture
a program of harare rules that governs the behaviour of members of a community or society and a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of the community
Our WEIRD world
Western
Educated
Industrialized
Rich
Democratic
but 96% of psychology studies are done on weirdos and that only makes up 12% of Earth
National Character & Personality study (Terracciano… Trapnell er al. 2005)
surveyed 49 cultures in 27 languages
participants described a “typical member” of their culture and then completes the Big Five
Results:
canadians see themselves as more agreeable and open to experience, and lower in neuriticism than they actually are
americans see themselves as more extroverted, less agreeable and higher in neuroticism than they actually are
in reality, personality scores across countries are very similar
Trepanation
drilling holes in the head in order to release the demons causing “abnormal” behaviour
other medieval treatments
starved, flogged, immersion in boiling water or oil, exorcism
asylums
residential facilities for the mentally i’ll, though often applying brutal “treatments”
18th and 19th centuries—mental illness
gradually more concern for the mentally ill
developed a medical model of mental illness
treated psychological conditions as sets of symptoms, causes, and outcomes, with treatments aimed at changing physiological processes to alleviate symptoms
Philippe Pinel
French physician in the late 18th century
thought mentally i’ll patients were still human, treatments involve kindness, sunny rooms, baths, etc
Dorothy Dix
American activist, 19th century
raised money for hospitals for mentally ill, advocated for humane treatment
20th century mental illness
overcrowding and desintituitonalization of mental hospitals
some successes but also some failures (i.e. homeless people and schizophrenia)
what happens when schizophrenics stop taking meds?
how do we define mental illness?
is it a disease?
medical model says “yes”, this is at least partially true
i.e. schizophrenia—-strong biological basis
downsides of mental illness as a disease
it pins labels on people that potentially cause stigma
(changes how people treat them)
mentally ill people can have a hard time making friends because of this
can have difficultly finding places to live, getting jobs, etc
Thomas Szasz—“Anti Psychiatry” movement
mental illness is a social construction
Drapetimania
early 19th century term reflecting idea that slaves were suffering from this disorder which was an urge to escape slavery
Drapetes
runaway slave
what are the consequences of being labelled mentally ill?
“once a person is designated abnormal, all of his other behaviours are coloured by that label”
people that were totally fine pretended to be mentally ill to get admited into a mental hospital, then the people acted normally. They treated them through a lens of “these people are schizophrenic”.
11/12 were discharged with “remission of schizophrenia “. this is rarely ever given to people who really have schizophrenia, but the 11 psychiatrists who released these subjects all acted so rational as if this was normal
3 misperceptions of mentally illness
- disorders are incurable (in reality the majority get better)
- mentally ill are violent and dangerous (mostly not true)
- mentally ill are bizarre and different (vast majority, not true)
Taijin Kyofusho
social phobia in a japeneze context
- do something that will embarrass or offend others
-i.e. blushing, emitting offensive odour, staring inappropriately, physical defects
Where is the line between “normal” and “abnormal”?
3 criteria that one could use:
- deviance: is this really unusually/atypical?
- personal distress: is the individual upset/concerned?
- Maladaptive behaviour: is this hurting the person (or others)?
mental disorder
any behaviour or emotional state that causes an individual great suffering, is self-destructive, seriously impairs the persons ability to work or get along with others, or endangers others or the community
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disprders (DSM)
a standardized manual to aid the diagnosis of disorders; it lists the diagnostic criteria and etiologies (causes) for different conditions
primary goal to be descriptive and to provide clear diagnostic categories
lists symptoms, onset, predisposing factors, course of disorder, prevalence, sex ratio, and cultural issues in diagnosis
DSM-5 (2013) and what each diagnosis contains, 3 pieces
each diagnosis contains 3 pieces of information:
a set of symptoms and the number of symptoms that must be met in order to have the disorder
the stoplight of symptoms (the best current evidence for what causes it)
a prognosis or prediction of how these symptoms will persist or change over time
Advantages to the new DSM
-reliability (decent reliability for some disprders, poor for others)
-attention to culture-bound syndromes
-attention to genetic and biological factors
Concerns with the new DSM
-not based on actual research
-unclear rational for the number of symptoms necessary for diagnosis
-potential stigma and labels
-over diagnosis of conditions
-the illusion of conditions man’s universality
what is the reason for explosion of disorders in the last 60 years?
economic reasons?
diagnoses are needed for insurance reasons so therapists will be compensated
diagnoses and the law
mental disorder is not the same as insanity: legal term only involving mental illness and whether person is aware of consequences and can control their behaviour
not criminally responsible on account of Mental Disorder: basically no person is criminally responsible for any act committed while suffering from a mental disorder
public misperceptions about The insanity defence…
- is often used (only used 1% of the time)
- when used is often successful (reality less than 25% success rate)
- often results in release when successful (absolute release is only 1% of the time)
- is used by extremely dangerous individuals (most instances are trivial crimes like left)
Anxiety
a general state of apprehension or psychological tension
can be adaptive as it energizes us to cope with danger
anxiety occurs as a natural part of the flight or fight response—racing heart, sweating, knot in stomach
Anxiety disorders
a category of disorders involving fear or nervousness that is excessive, irrational, and maladaptive.
when fear and anxiety become detached from actual danger
i.e. chronic anxiety, panick attacks, phobias
set apart by the strong intensity and long duration of the response
Anxiety disorders—genetic component
there is a genetic component
identical twins are more likely to both have one compared to fraternal twins
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
a disorder involving frequently elevated levels of anxiety, generally from the normal challenges and stresses of everyday life
a person with this fears disaster everywhere
symptoms:
-feeling tense, nervous
-racing heart, shaking
-bias for negative information, lack of focus
Panic disorder
a person experienced recurring panic attacks, feeling of impending doom or death, accompanied by physiological symptoms such as rapid breathing and dizziness
interpretation of bodily attack
key feature: experience of extreme panic. Intense fear that something is going to happen, no apparent cause.
-shortness of breath
-sweating
-dizziness
-faintness
-feelings of non reality
-imminent danger is approaching
Phobia
a severe, irrational fear of a very specific object or situation
common: animals, heights, blood, thunder, medical procedures
Specific (simple) phobias
negative experiences or social learning create a link between an object and an emotional experience
classical conditioning
by coincidence a negative association is formed between an object or neutral situation and an anxious response
i.e. driving over a bridge and getting struck by lightning might promote anxious anxiety towards bridges
Operant Conditioning
avoiding the obejct reduces anxiety
i.e. avoids punishment of anxiety
social learning
modelling by another person (e.g. a parent) displaying fear of something
social anxiety disorder
a very strong fear of being judged by others or being embarrassed or humiliated in public
this leads people to limit their social activities.
The right amygdala of people with social phobia fires in response to non-emotional face
this does not occur in people without social phobias
suggested they have a lowered threshold for when somebody looks judging or threatening
agoraphobia
an intense fear of outside spaces or having a panic attack in public where escape is difficult
as a result, individuals may avoid ph luv settings and increasingly isolate themselves
anxiety disorders can lead to self perpetuating cycle
physiological responses (i.e. arousal) and behavioural reactions (i.e. avoidance) can feed back to reinforce the fear
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
presence of unwanted, inappropriate, and persistent thoughts (obsessions), and tendency to engage in repetitive, almost ritualistic, behaviours (compulsions) designed to reduce anxiety
OCD is charactered by…
unwanted thoughts and disfintional actions
OCD obsessions
persistent and unwanted thoughts, ideas or images
Appraisal
the primary stress appraisal is hypersensitive particular classes of stimuli
attribution
OCD patients tend to mid attribute negative life events to their failure to perform certain OCD actions
OCD—Orbitofrontal cortex
increased activation
involved with assessing personal consequences
Anterior cingulate cortex
becomes hyperactive during OCD
thinner in people with OCD
involved in autonomic functions (heart race), rational functions (decision making)
PTSD
characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia lingering for more than four weeks
Neuroimaging study of PTSD patients
they used a symptom evocation paradigm to cause patients to re-experience the traumatic event
emotional and memory areas become activated
frontal lobe areas involved with reasoning and decision making showed reduced activity
good news about traumatic experiences
after being exposed to a terrifying event, at least 80% of people do not experience post traumatic stress syndrome
Post traumatic growth
feel that the experience has bad them stronger, wiser, more mature, more tolerant and understanding, or in some other way a better person
studies have found that more than 60% of trauma victims undergo post traumatic growth
Study about scary movies (2010)
study had people watch a scary movie/traumatic film
IV: played Tetris, or various control conditions
DV: number of flashbacks over a one-week period
results:
tetris ties up our “visual-spatial” processing, interferes with visual memory formation
stats about Mood Disorders
most common disorder: but most people seek treatment
affects around 10% of Canadians; it is twice as likely in women
lifetime prevalence: 25% for women and 13% for men
increasingly being diagnosed in young adulthood
The Teen Mental Illness Epidemic
in sum:
a substantial increase in adolescent anxiety and depression rates begins in the early 2010s
a substantial increase in adolescent self harm rates or psychiatric hospitalizations begins in the early 2010s
the increases are larger for girls than for boys
the increases are larger for Gen Z than for older generations
What are the requirements for Major Depression Disorder
sadness for at least 2 weeks
at least four of the following:
-weight or appetite change
-sleep disturbance
-psychomotor retardation or agitation
-feeling tired or fatigued
-feelings of worthlessness or guilt
-inability to concentrate/pay attention
-suicidal ideation
Vulnerability- Stress model
individual vulnerability interacts with cognitive and situational factors to produce mental disorders
i.e. genetics
2 primary brain regions of interest related to depressions:
limbic system, which is active in emotional responses and processing
the dorsal (back) back of the frontal cortex, which generally plays a role in controlling thoughts and concentrating
bipolar disorder
a mood disorder characterized by extreme highs and lows in mood, motivation and energy
cycling between episodes of depression and mania
roughly 1% for men and women
mania
-increased energy
-increase activity
-increased distractibility
-excessive engagement in pleasurable behaviours that may lead to painful consequences
Requirements for mania
must last for longer than 1 week
must include 3 or more of the following symptoms:
-inflated self esteem or grandiosity
-decrease need for sleep
-more talkative
-flight of ideas
-distractibility
-increase goal directed activity it psychomotor agitation
-excessive involvement in pleasurable activities with painful consequences
inflated self esteem
belief that they have insulated ability, talent, poets or skills
physical changes of mania
heightened verbal activity
increase energy
decreased eating and sleeping
increased energy + grandiosity + irritability = risky behaviours
schizophrenia
a psychotic disorder marked by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized and incoherent speech, disorganized and inappropriate behaviour, and cognitive impairments
it’s a form of psychosis: distorted perceptions of reality and irrational behaviour
chronic schizophrenia
process schizophrenia
-form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood
-as people age, psychotic epiodesss last longer and recovery periods shorten
Prrodomal Phase of Schizophrenia
people may become easily confused and have difficulty organizing their thoughts—lose interest or withdraw from friends and family, lose their typical motivations
active phase of schizophrenia
delusional thoughts and hallucinations—disorganized patterns of thoughts, emotions and behaviours
residual phase of schizophrenia
predominant symptoms have disappeared or lessened, though the patient may still be withdrawn or have trouble concentrating
positive symptoms of Schizophrenia (positive as in present)
Overt, added experiences that should not be present (not referring to positive in a “good” sense)
-hallucinations
-delusions
-disordered thinking or speeching
-cognitive, emotional and behavioural excesses
hallucinations
alterations in perception, such that a person hears, sees, smells, feels or tastes something that does not actually exist, except in that persons own mind
delusions
believes that are not based on reality
delusions of grandeur
being important, sometimes a historical figure like Jesus
delusions of reference
an individuals experiencing innocuous events or mere coincidence and believing they have strong personal significance
thought assertion
aliens or government are inserting thoughts into one’s head
thought broadcasting
that other people can read one’s thoughts
incoherent speech: “word salad”
These idiosyncratic thoughts and associations that interfere with the ability to maintain a logical and consistent train of thought
“I gotta get out of here, the people are talking. They’re talking about clocks, maps, and triangles within the neighbourhood. I can understand and I see the dangers. I know how people operate, and there isn’t any need to be upset.”
disordered thinking
a deficit in utilizing “executive functions”, such as attention, rule switching, forming associations, or dealing with abstractions
Mania (to do with slaves)
mad or crazy
when do people come seeking help for therapy?
sometimes after a really long time
one study suggested 8 years after depression first occurred; after 9 years for generalized anxiety disorders
Who does therapy?
Psychiatrists and Psychologists
psychiatrists
have an MD
-prescribe medication
-psychoanalysis has more often been used by psychiatrists
psychologists
who have a PhD or a PsyD
-clinical psychologists complete a PhD which includes emphasizing both research and learning/practicing therapies
-PsyD is also a doctorate degree, but it emphasizes practice
what are some other related careers for therapy?
clinical social workers
psychiatric nurses
counsellors
other types of therapists
psychoanalysis
method of psychotherapy developed by Freud
was the first organized type of therapy for mental disorders
early childhood experiences and the exploration of unconscious motives and conflicts are key parts of the idea
Breuer’s treatment that was inspired by Freud’s approach
she came for treatment for Paralysis in her right side, vision, hearing and speech. She was diagnosed with “hysteria”
symptoms improved when talking about them: Anna called this the “talking cure”
The psychoanalyst encounters different problems in therapy like…(3 things)
resistance: the patient has cognitive mechanisms to avoid directly confronting the issue
transference: feelings for important people in the patients life (patients feeling for therapist)
Counter-Transference: redirection if feelings from the therapist to the client
what is the goal of psychoanalysis?
to uncover unconscious causes of psychological disorders
What 4 things do Freudian psychoanalysis involve?
case studies: detailed write ups of patients
dream analysis: meaning in dreams
free association: a type of brainstorming about the meaning of different experiences
analysis of mistakes (freudian slips & parapraxes)
Freudian slips
a slip of the tongue that is motivated by and reveals some unconscious aspect of the mind
parapraxes
mistakes and errors
e.g. you give someone a sweater and the first time they wear it, they spill red wine on it, ruining it
somebody loses their engagement ring (is it meant to be??)
projective tests
personality tests in which ambiguous images are presented to an individual to elicit responses that reflect unconscious desires or conflicts
used to infer a persons motives, conflicts, and unconscious dynamics on the basis of the person’s interpretations of ambiguous stimuli
Rorschach inkblot test
a test in which people are asked to describe what they see on the inkblot; psychologists interpret this description using a standardized scoring and interpretation method
Rorschach inkblot test—what do they look at with scoring responses?
-level of vagueness, or synthesis of multiple images in the blot
-area of blot focused on
-does the inkblot look like the form the participant claims claims it looks like?
-what the respondent actually sees in the blot
-organized response, or scattered?
-any illogical aspects to the response?
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a test that asks respondents to tell stories about ambiguous pictures involving various interpersonal situations
the stories reveal participants expectations of relationships with peers, parents or tiger other authority figures, subordinates, and possible romantic partner
rationale
how people perceive others may be a projection of how they perceive themselves
what does the examiner assess in the TAT?
content of the stories
participants mannerisms (vocal tone, posture, hesitations, and other signs of emotional distress)
criticisms of Projective Tests
subjective interpretation: the experimenter needs to interpret the figures/images as well, thus even with comprehensive scoring systems, there is an element of subjectivity
reliability: whether the same responses will be scored the same way by multiple experimenters, or whether the same person given the test twice will obtain the same scores
validity: do descriptions actually reflect an underlying psychological disposition? without reliability, cannot be valid
free association
the process of saying freely what we r comes to mind in connection with dreams, memories, fantasies, or conflicts
psychodynamic therapy
a “lighter” version of a psychoanalysis
similarly views unconscious forces and childhood experiences as root of problem
face-to-face and briefer than psychoanalysis
goals of psychodynamic therapy?
help people understand current symptoms
explore and gain perspective on defended-against thoughts and feelings
techniques for psychodynamic therapy
client centred face to face meetings
exploration of past relationship troubles to understand origins of current difficulties
personality factors
shy and inhibited people are more prone to phobias
OCD compulsions
actions that people feel compelled to do to relieve anxiety
OCD—prefrontal cortex
increased activation
involved with decision-making, planning, etc
racing thoughts
rapid thoughts with little association between them—can become easily distracted
acute schizophrenia
reactive schizophrenia
form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age
often a response to an emotionally traumatic event
has extended recovery periods
what are the 3 distinct phases of schizophrenia?
prodromal phase
active phase
residual
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
an absence of functioning or lack of characteristics that should be present:
-lack of speech
-lack of emotional expression (flat affect)
-lack of energy
-anhedonia
-asociality
delusions of persecution
e.g. that the government is out to get you
negative symptoms: the absence of functionality that should be present in schizophrenia
poverty of speech: brief, empty replies in conversation
emotional flatness: unresponsive facial expressions, poor eye contact, diminished emotionality
loss of motivation: diminished ability to initiate typical activities
anhedonia: decreased enjoyment or pleasure in everyday events or things that one used to find pleasurable
social withdrawal
season effects of schizophrenia
higher schizophrenia rates in people born during the winter months
the hypothesis is that winter births carry higher risk because it’s flu season (during the second trimester)? could be related to maternal immune responses?
prenatal birth complications with schizophrenia
birth complications
maternal stress (e.g. war, violence), environmental toxins, birth complications, Vitamin D deficiency
dopamine hypothesis with schizophrenia
schizophrenia is associated with over activity of dopamine in at least some brain areas (especially the Substantia nigra— striatum pathway)
dissociative disorder
a category of mental disorders characterized by a split between conscious awareness from feeling, cognition, memory, and identity
dissociative fugue
a period of profound autobiographical memory loss
patients cannot recall their past and lose their identity. sometimes develop a new one
dissociative amnesia
a severe loss of memory, usually for a specific stressful event, when no biological cause for amnesia is present
lasts hours to years
info not permanently lost but can’t be retrieved during the period of amnesia
depersonalization disorder
a strong sense of the surreal, the feeling that one is not connected to one’s body, the feeling of disconnection from one’s regular identity and awareness
e.g. an out of body experience
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
firmly referred to as Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD)
a person experiences a split in identity such that they feel different aspects of themselves as though they were separate from each other
Posttraumatic Model—Cause #1 of DID
defense mechanism against intensely painful and frightening experiences
traumatized personality gives birth to other personalities to deal with the emotional horror of abuse
Sociocognitive Model—Cause #2 for DID
latrogenic: intense and suggestive interview techniques
Cluster B personalities
disorders involve dramatic, emotional, and erratic behaviours
grouped because they all involve problems with emotion regulation and impulse control that have negative effects on other people and on peoples social relationships
borderline personality disorder
a disorder characterized by instability in mood—intense extremes between positive and negative emotions, an unstable sense of self, impulsive, manipulative, and difficult social relationships
Paranoid ideas
Relationship instability
Angry outbursts
Impulsive behaviour
Suicidal behaviour
Emptiness
potential causes of borderline personality disorder
-genetics
-abusive or neglectful parenting
-brain abnormalities related to aggression and emotional regulation
narcissist personality disorder
an inflated sense of self importance and an excessive need for attention and admiration, as well as intense self doubt and fear of abandonment
entitled, manipulative, fragile
Histrionic personality disorder
characterized by excessive attention seeking and dramatic behaviour
goal of people with this disorder is to always be the center of attention (e.g. acting dramatically, dressing flamboyantly, or even acting in a sexually seductive manner)
Antisocial personality disorder
a profound lack of empathy or emotional connection with others
a disregard for others rights or preferences
a tendency toward inserting their own desires, often violently, into others regardless if the consequences for others
antisocial personality disorder—have have 3 of these criteria
-repeatedly break the law
-they are deceitful, using aliases and lies to con others
-they are impulsive and unable to plan ahead
-they repeatedly get into physical fights or assaults
-they show reckless disregard for own safety or that of others
-they are irresponsible, failing to meet obligations to others
-they lack remorse for actions that harm others
psychopathy
characterized by lack of remorse, empathy, anxiety, and other social emotions, the use of deceit and manipulation, and impulsive thrill seeking
Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)—a number of factors may be involved in these disorders
- abnormalities in the central nervous system
- impaired frontal lobe functioning
- genetic influences
- environmental events
paranoid personality disorder
sees threats where others do not; difficulty trusting others
schizoid personality disorder
difficulty forming close relationships; desire to be left alone; restricted emotional expression
schizotypal personality disorder
eccentric, odd, superstitious, or grandiose ways of thinking or expressing oneself
avoidant personality disorder
social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation.
fear of rejection
embarrassment
dependent personality disorder
a pattern of submissive and clinging behaviour related to an excessive need to be taken care of
difficulty making decisions without the help of others.
Low self confidence
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
a pattern of preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control.
high expectations for others and oneself—very upset if those standards aren’t met
organizing the Traditional 10 Personality disorders
notice that all disorders but 2 (schizoid and obsessive-compulsive) are hypothesized to be associated with neuroticism
all these disorders involve a certain amount of anxiety and unhappiness
what do you have to remember about personality disorders?
disorders are defined as extreme and troublesome patterns of personality
e.g. someone who is moderately anxious (neurotic), introverted, and open probably does not have a personality disorder
What are the Traditional 10 Personality Disorders?
schizoid
paranoid
schizotypal
antisocial
borderline
narcissistic
histrionic
avoidant
dependent
obsessive-compulsive
humanist therapy
a form of psychotherapy based on the philosophy of humanism, which emphasizes the clients free will to change rather past conflicts
the humanist movement changed focus of therapy..
instead of looking at unconscious conflicts, they focused on how people become self-actuallu ed and fulfil their higher motivations
carl rogers
was one of the founders of the movement and also developed a type of therapy called client-cantered therapy, or person-centered therapy
problems are caused by a discrepancy between who we see ourselves as and who we want to be
three things are needed to grow as a person:
genuineness (openness)
unconditional positive regard (acceptance)
empathy (being listened to and understood)
Genuineness
knowing who you are, and being open with others about that
unconditional positve regard
love or support given to another person with no conditions attached
empathy
refers to ability of therapist to understand and accept what the client says
how does client centered therapy differ from psychoanalysis
peoples feelings and thoughts in the present movement, not past conflicts
conscious thoughts (not unconscious wishes)
taking responsibility for one’s feelings and actions (not seeming hidden motives)
promoting growth and self actualization—not just managing to get through the day
behaviour therapy
application of learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviours
the idea that maladaptive behaviour is learned (through reinforcement or conditioning) and can be unlearned
operant conditioning
rewards are introduced to increase a behaviour
punishment is introduced to decrease behaviour
classical conditioning
unlearned
example:
food makes a dog salivate
bell does not cause salivate
bell followed by food causes salivate
so therefore the bell alone causes salivate
behavioural treatments
-systematic desensitization
-flooding
-aversion
systematic desensitization
step by step process of desensitizing a client to a geared object or experience
based on the idea that some phobias are conditioned responses to previously neutral stimuli
idea is to weaken the link between by slowly repeating and increasing exposure
counterconditioning
process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response
baby is scared of snakes, but baby liked ice cream
if you give the baby ice cream when they see the snake, they might not fear the snake anymore
flooding
is like ripping off the bandaid or learning to swim by jumping into the deep end of the pool
a sudden large scale exposure to the object under controlled conditions
aversion connections
people very rapidly become conditioned to dislike something when it’s been paired with a nausea inducing stimulus
giving alcoholics drinks that have something that makes them really sick in it
cognitive therapy
a form of therapy designed to identify and change irrational, unproductive ways of thinking and, hence, to reduce negative emotions
this teaches the client new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting
cognitive-behavioural therapy
integration of cognitive therapy (changing self defeating thinking) with behaviour therapy (changing unwanted behaviour)
procedures such as cognitive reconstructing, stress inoculation training and desensitization
cognitive therapy
teaching the client new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting
based on the premise that inaccurate believes and maladaptive information processing have a casual role in depression
how might medication and therapy produce addictive effects
perhaps though different mechanisms of action
these treatments might thus result in end states that are similar: normalized amygdala and prefrontal cortex activity
family therapy
was developed to look at problems in the context of the family unit.
perspective that holds than an individuals problem developed in the context g the family, sustained by family dynamics and changes can affect all members of the family
family system perspective
approach that identifies how each family member forms a larger part of an interacting system
deterioration effects
anywhere from 3-10% of individuals become worse following psychological treatment
like:
-symptoms worsen
-appearance of new symptoms
-heightened concern about existing symptoms
-excessive dependency in therapist
-reluctance to seek future treatment
psychosurgery
any surgical procedure that destroys selected areas of the brain believed to be involved in emotional disorders or violent, impulsive behaviour
what does the Cognitive model suggest?
that thoughts, feelings and behaviours are all connected
What did Egas Moniz introduce for a surgical operation in 1936?
prefrontal leucotomy (now called lobotomy)
the operation, consisted in incisions that destroyed connections between the prefrontal region and other parts of the brain
used frequently for the treatment of schizophrenia
What was the bad side of Lobotomies?
some people became childish, were unemployable and some even became vegetative
Why did Lobotomies stop?
in 1952 the first drug with a definite effect on schizophrenia was introduced, chlorpromazine.
lobotomies fell out of favour because medication was less invasive, more humane, more effective and less irreversible
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
passing an electrical current through the brain in order to induce a temporary seizure
developed to treat schizophrenia in 1938 but was found to be ineffective in reducing psychotic symptoms
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
involved the use of a pulsing coil held to a persons skull at the left prefrontal
Study about physical exercise and major depression
volunteers with major depression were assigned either exercise, sertraline therapy (medication) or a combination
the ones in the exercise alone group had the most amount of fully recovered people (90%) and almost no partially or relapsed people (below 10%)
the medication group had only 55% recovered and 45% relapsed
the combination group had 60% recovered but 30% relapsed
Sunlight for therapy
the brain produces more serotonin on sunny days than on overcast cloudy days
