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Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Motivation

A

An inferred process within a person or animal that causes movement either towards a goal or away from an unpleasant situation.

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2
Q

Theories of motivation

A

an over-arching explanation for why people do the things that they do

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3
Q

Instincts

A

automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behaviour patterns triggered by particular stimulation
i.e. cats know how to catch a mouse

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4
Q

Fixed-action patterns

A

an instinctual behavioural sequence that’s relatively invariant within the species
i.e. mother turkeys and how they protect their young

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5
Q

Releaser

A

is the triggering stimulus–what cues the fixed action pattern
i.e. the “cheap, cheap” sound of babies turkeys

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6
Q

Drives

A

a biological trigger that tells us we may be deprived of something and causes us to seek out what is needed, such as food or water.

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7
Q

Primary drives

A

are innate like thirst, hunger, and sex

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8
Q

Secondary drives

A

are needs that have been conditioned to have meaning like money

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9
Q

Incentives

A

are the stimuli we seek that can satisfy drives such as food, water, social approval, companionship and other needs

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10
Q

Theories of Motivation–Drive reduction theories

A

we feel unpleasant tension when we stray from homeostasis
we become motivated (driven) to restore that physiological equilibrium (satisfy the need)

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11
Q

Arousal Theory

A

humans are motivated to engage in behaviours that either increase or decrease arousal levels

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12
Q

Yerkes-Dodson law

A

Performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decrease

relationship can be characterized as a bell shaped curve where arousal can increase performance only up to a point

when levels of stress or arousal become too high, performance decreases

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13
Q

Different tasks require different levels of arousal for optimal performance. How does this work for simple and complex tasks?

A

simple or well-learned tasks: performance improves as arousal increases

complex, unfamiliar or difficult tasks: the relationship between arousal and performance reverses after a point, and performance declines as arousal increases

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14
Q

What is the Hierarchy of Needs? and who created it?

A

Abraham Maslow created the Hierarchy of Needs in the 1940’s.

He believed that individuals possess a constantly growing inner drive that has great potential.

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15
Q

What are the levels of the Hierarchy of Needs from bottom to top?

A

Self-actualization needs
Aesthetic needs
Cognitive needs
Esteem needs
Belongingness needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs

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16
Q

Self-Determination theory

A

proposes that people have 3 primary motives:
1. Autonomy
2. Relatedness
3. Competence

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17
Q

Autonomy

A

To cause outcomes in your own life–act consistently with your self concept

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18
Q

Relatedness

A

To feel connected with others who are important to you–care for others and experience caring

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19
Q

Competence

A

To feel mastery over your life–to perform tasks at a satisfying level

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20
Q

Extrinsic Motivation

A

performance motivation

a person tends to do a task or activity mainly because doing so will yield some kind of reward or benefit upon completion.
i.e. a paycheck

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21
Q

Intrinsic Motivation

A

mastery motivation

is characterized by doing something purely because of enjoyment or fun
i.e. if you have an awesome workplace where you enjoy what you do

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22
Q

Over Justification Effect

A

The addition of external motivation can undermine internal motivation
i.e. students who previously enjoyed solving puzzles showed less intrinsic motivation after being paid

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23
Q

Self efficacy

A

confidence that one can plan and execute a course of action

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24
Q

Approach goals

A

enjoyable and pleasant incentives that we are drawn toward, such as praise or financial reward
i.e.getting married in order to live a shared life

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25
Q

Avoidance goals

A

unpleasant outcomes such as shame, embarrassment, or emotional pain, which we try to avoid
i.e. getting married to avoid being alone

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26
Q

What are the 3 motivational conflicts?

A
  1. Approach-approach conflicts–when you are equally attracted to 2 or more possible goals
  2. Avoidance-avoidance conflicts–require you to choose the lesser of 2 evils because you dislike both alternatives
  3. Approach-avoidance conflicts–when a single activity or goal has both positive and a negative aspect
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27
Q

Hunger

A

the need to consume enough nutrients so that you have enough energy to function

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28
Q

what does the ventromedial hypothalamus do?

A

stimulation to this area reduces eating; destruction to it causes overeating (“off” switch)

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29
Q

What does the lateral hypothalamus do?

A

stimulation to this area increases eating; destruction reduces eating to a level of starvation (“on” switch)

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30
Q

The biology of weight

A

research does not support the idea that people that people who are overweight are emotionally disturbed

heaviness is not always caused by overeating

biological mechanisms regulate your body weight and are influenced by genetics

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31
Q

Set point

A

genetically influenced weight range for an individual

when your body falls below your “set point” weight, increased hunger and a lower metabolic rate may combine to restore weight lost (and vice versa)

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32
Q

how are genes are involved in some types of obesity?

A

mutations in the ob gene may cause obesity in some individuals

ob gene causes fat cells to secrete a protein called leptin that acts on the hypothalamus and helps to regulate appetite

normals levels of leptin cause us to eat enough for maintenance
low levels cause us to overeat

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33
Q

what do the receptors in the nose and mouth do?

A

urge us to eat

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34
Q

what do the receptors in the gut do?

A

urge us to stop eating

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35
Q

What does the hormone ghrelin do?

A

it makes you hungry

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36
Q

What does leptin do?

A

it turns off your appetite

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37
Q

what does sugar do?

A

activates pleasure-inducing dopamine pathway

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38
Q

What is the prevalence of obesity in Canada?

A

approximately 26% of women and 35% of men

It has been increasing over the years and is not solely from genetics

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39
Q

What does “kummerspeck” mean?

A

“grief bacon”

sometimes people eat when they don’t physiologically need to–there are other things that influence whether we eat, beyond just hunger

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40
Q

Social facilitation

A

eating more when we’re around other people–it’s a social acivity

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41
Q

impression management

A

eating in order to fit in or not be embarrassed
i.e. eating less on a date

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42
Q

Minimal eating norm

A

good manners–at least in some social and cultural settings–is to eat small amounts to avoid seeming rude

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43
Q

Modeling

A

eating whatever others eat

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44
Q

“Mindless Eating” study 1

A

they gave away free popcorn in either medium or large containers

moviegoers who were given fresh popcorn ate 45.3% more popcorn when it was given to them in large containers

they were influenced by the container size

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45
Q

“Mindless Eating” study 2

A

in another study some participants were given stale, 14 day old popcorn

even though people disliked it, they still ate 33.6% more popcorn when eating from a large container than from a medium container

when asked if they thought they ate more because of the size of the container: 77% of those given the large tubs said they would have eaten the same amount if given a medium container

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46
Q

Implications

A

what is an appropriate “serving size”?

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47
Q

Bottomless bowl of soup study (2005)

A

individuals stopped eating after consuming, on average, over 70% more than those participants who knowingly refilled their bowls

shows how people’s consumption is determined, in part, by external cues such as the bowl

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48
Q

Master’s and Johnson’s four stages of the sexual response

A
  1. Excitement
  2. Plateau
  3. Orgasm
  4. Resolution
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49
Q

Compared to women, men…

A
  • think about sex more
  • initiate sex more often in relationships
  • desire sex more in relationships
  • masturbate more
  • report fewer problems with low sex drive
  • more often pay money or offer gifts for sex
  • more often watch porn
  • have orgasms more reliably and easily than women
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50
Q

Clark and Hatfield (1989) study about sex on campus

A

“I’ve been noticing you around campus. I find you to be very attractive. Would you…”
“go out with me tonight?”
“come over to my apartment tonight?”
“go to bed with me tonight?”

-men and women both said about 50-55% for the date
-70% of men and only 5% of women agreed to go to the apartment
-75% of men and 0% of women agreed to go to bed

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51
Q

What does better sex result in?

A
  • men less likely to leave
  • more satisfied wives two years later
  • men’s satisfaction fluctuated with frequency of sex
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52
Q

Better relationships result in?

A
  • higher sex satisfaction 18 months later, if relationship satisfaction and effective communication are high
  • greater sex satisfaction 1 year later if wife has open communication and high perceptions of stability
  • more sexual satisfaction, following 5-session marital communication intervention
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53
Q

People can engage in sex for approach reasons like:

A

-to feel good
- to share intimacy/be closer with our partner
- to have fun

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54
Q

People can engage in sex for avoidance reasons like:

A
  • to stop our partner from leaving
  • to stop our partner from being upset
  • To stop feeling guilty
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55
Q

Affiliation need

A

the need to build relationships and to feel a part of the group

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56
Q

Humans are innately social beings–3 points

A

-the need to belong affects thoughts, emotions and behaviors
-feelings of love activate the brain’s reward and safety systems
-social isolation increases the risk for mental decline and poor health

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57
Q

The standard of beauty has changed. How?

A

In 1900-1950, larger and heavier women were considered more attractive than now

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58
Q

Study on waist-to-hip ratio and fertility (1990)

A

-married women with higher ratio reported more difficulty getting pregnant

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59
Q

Matching Phenomenon

A

men and women of similar attractiveness are drawn to one another
(couples, friends, and spouses tend to share the same values, attitudes, and beliefs)
Opposites do not attract

attractive people and unattractive people have different standards

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60
Q

Good News about matching

A

regardless of the level of physical attractiveness, people generally rate their spouses as attractive

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61
Q

What did they find out about attractiveness?

A

attractiveness is NOT universal, beauty is all determined individually

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62
Q

Eastwick & Finkel (2008) study about matching

A

-people were asked to rate the importance of attractiveness and earning prospects (self reported)
-the self reported found that men value physical attractiveness and women value earning prospect
-then went on little 4 minute “speed dates”
-then rated the attractiveness and earning prospects
-these did not pan out in actual rating of partners

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63
Q

Online Dating services

A

customers typically end up going out with feweer than 1% of the peoples whose profiles they study online

when you have all these criteria to consider, and so many people to choose from, you start striving for perfection

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64
Q

Speed-Dating event

A

the average participant makes a match with at least 1 in 10 of the people they meet; some studies have found the average is 2 or 3 out of 10

people realize there aren’t an infinite number of possibilities. If they want to get anything out of the evening, they have to settle for less than perfection

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65
Q

Stereotype about dating

A

-men are indiscriminate pursuers who will go for anyone with a heartbeat

-women are selectors—- the romantic gatekeepers who thrive on saying “no”

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66
Q

What is the bottom line about attraction?

A

many factors play a role in what we find attractive, and we don’t always know why we are attracted to some people

often beauty is truly in the eye of the beholder

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67
Q

Passionate Love

A

Aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually at the beginning of a live relationship

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68
Q

Companionate Love

A

The feelings of intimacy and affection we feel toward someone with whine our lives are deeply intertwined

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69
Q

Triangular Theory of Love (Sternberg)

A

suggests to at love has 3 basic ingredients:
-intimacy
-passion
-commitment

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70
Q

Intimacy (Triangular Theory)

A

feelings of being close and bonded

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71
Q

Passion (Triangular Theory)

A

arousal and sexual attraction

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72
Q

Commitment (Triangular Theory)

A

short term commitment to love your partner, long term to maintain that love and stay with them

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73
Q

Emotions have the following 3 components:

A
  1. a subjective thought and/or experience with
  2. accompanying patterns of neural activity and physical arousal and
  3. an observable behavioural expression
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74
Q

Emotion

A

is a state of arousal involving facial and bodily changes, brain activation, cognitive appraisals, subjective feelings, and tendencies toward action

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75
Q

The fast route

A

skips the visual cortex and goes straight to the amygdala for an instant emotional reaction

stimulates activity in sensory areas

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76
Q

Amygdala

A

a brain structure involved in the arousal and regulation of emotion and the initial emotional response to sensory information

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77
Q

Assesses Threat

A

becomes activated during the perception of arousing or aversive/fear-inducing stimuli
i.e. loud noises, odours, bad tastes

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78
Q

Slow pathway

A

sensory input is routed to the cortex for analysis and then transmission to the amygdala

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79
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A

the most forward part of the frontal lobes of the brain

associated with emotional experience and emotional regulation: modifying and controlling what we feel

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80
Q

Left Prefrontal cortex

A

more tuned to approach emotions
i.e. happiness, enthusiasm

if damaged results in loss of joy

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81
Q

Right Prefrontal cortex

A

more tuned to unpleasant emotions

involved in withdrawal and escape from unpleasant and frightful stimuli
i.e. disgust

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82
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion

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83
Q

Schachter & Singer: Two Factor Theory

A

The experience of emotion depends on two factors:
-Physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation

Emotion:
-physical response
-cognitive interpretation
-conscious experience

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84
Q

Schacter and Singer’s classic study

A

all participants received an epinephrine injection (adrenaline)

told that it either causes arousal or has no effect

participants were then put in a waiting room with someone else who either acted.. Angry or Euphoric/Goofy

results:
if participants expected the shot would increase arousal, then it did not have an effect on their emotions

However, if participants did not expect the shot to affect arousal, participants interpreted it based on the situation

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85
Q

Dutton & Aron-arousal river study

A

Capilano river:
high scary suspension bridge
low stable suspension bridge

Approached by an attractive female research assistant and then she gave them her number to “call her for the results”

Results:
the males that met the woman on the suspension bridge found her more attractive and were more likely to call her (12.5% vs. 50%)

the feelings of arousal that the male hikers experienced on the bridge were misinterpreted as attraction (Misinterpretation attraction)

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86
Q

what is the bottom line about interpretation

A

emotion is determined, in part, by our appraisal/interpretation of the situation

the same principle occurs for evaluations of stressful events (an event is only stressful for people if they interpret it that way)

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87
Q

Body language

A

nonverbal signals of movement, posture, gesture and gaze

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88
Q

Emotional dialects

A

variations across cultures in how common emotions are expressed

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89
Q

Display rules

A

social and cultural rules that regulate when, how and where a person may express emotions (or must suppress)

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90
Q

Health psychology

A

is the branch of psychology concerned with the promotion of health and the prevention of illness

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91
Q

Placebo effect

A

the percepton that one has received an intervention improves one’s symptoms

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92
Q

Nocebo effect

A

An intervention that one has received an intervention decreases symptoms or increases side effects

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93
Q

Theories of emotion generally address two major questions. What are they?

A
  • Does physiological arousal come before or after emotional feelings?

-How do feelings and cognition interact?

94
Q

James-Lange Theory

A

William James and Carl Lange:
emotions are caused by bodily sensations
e.g. “I feel sad because I cry”

Arousal–>Emotion
Heart races–>Fear

95
Q

What’s the issue with the James-Lange Theory?

A

The physical experience of arousal is not uniquely distinct for each emotion.

e.g. what emotions result in sweaty hands, increased heart rate and rapid breathing?
-Fear
_Anxiety
-Excitement
-Love
-Anger
-Exercise

96
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory

A

Walter Cannon and Philip Bard:
emotions and arousal co-occur

stimulus activates body (body arousal)

Stimulus activates cortex (awareness of emotions)

both at the same time

97
Q

What are the issues with Cannon-Bard?

A

It’s saying that physiological sensations are irrevlavent to emotional expressions–they are co-occuring not causal

but research identifies at least some connection between body and emotional expression

98
Q

Pretend sadness

A

only 15% of subjects managed to get the eyebrows, eyelids, and forehead-wrinkle exactly right, mimicking the way true grief is expressed spontaneously

99
Q

How can you tell if someone is real or fake smiling?

A

People can fake a smile but a real smile is distinct because it involves raising the cheeks and having crows’ feet appear at the eyes

100
Q

Reward smiles

A

are displayed to communicate positive experiences or intentions

101
Q

Affiliative smiles

A

create and maintain social bonds and signal appeasement

102
Q

Dominance smiles

A

to signal status

103
Q

primary emotions

A

-emotions considered to be universal and biologically based
-generally include fear, anger, disgust, sadness, joy, surprise and contempt

104
Q

Secondary emotions

A

emotions that develop with cognitive maturity and vary across individuals and cultures

105
Q

Cross-cultural Emotion difficulties

A

based on 97 studies (22,148 participants):
emotion judgements made within culture were 13% more accurate than cross cultural judgements

106
Q

Some cultures have words for specific emotions unknown to other cultures. like?

A

Hagaii (Japanese)- helpless anguish paired with frustration

Schadenfreude (german)- joy at another’s misfortune

Fremdschamen- vicarious embarrassment (being embarrassed for someone else)

107
Q

What were the most common causes of death in the early 1900s

A

influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis, measles, and other contagious diseases

108
Q

What are the most common causes of death in the early 2000s?

A

heart disease, stroke, cancer, and diabetes are linked to unhealthy behaviours such as inactivity, obesity and smoking

109
Q

What is stress?

A

a psychological and physiological reaction that occurs when perceived demands exceed existing resources to meet those demands

109
Q

What is stress?

A

a psychological and physiological reaction that occurs when perceived demands exceed existing resources to meet those demands

110
Q

Stressor

A
  • an event, item or experience that causes a stress response
  • The stress response helps living things deal with stressors
111
Q

Who first applied the term stress in a psychological context?

A

Hungarian endocrinologist Hans Selye

112
Q

What would have been a better word instead of stress?

A

Strain

“strain” in physics refers to what happens in the response to the stress

because in psychology we are interested not only in stressors but also in the stress response.

113
Q

HPA axis

A

hypothalamus
pituitary
adrenal glands
(critical aspects of body’s physical stress response)

114
Q

general adaptation syndrome

A

the body’s response to stressors

115
Q

When a person is in danger or under stress the hypothalamus sends messages to the endocrine glands along ___ major pathways

A

2

116
Q

What is pathway 1

A

hypothalamus
automonic nervous system
adrenal medulla
secretes ephinephrine and norepinephrine

117
Q

What is pathway 2 (the HPA axis)?

A

hypothalamus
pituitary
adrenal cortex
secretes corisol and other hormones

118
Q

Short term: Fight-or-flight response

A

a set of physiological changes that occur in response to psychological or physical threats

119
Q

Long term: General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

A

a theory of stress responses involving stages of alarm, resistance and exhaustion

120
Q

Alarm

A

cognition of the threat and the physiological reactions that accompany it including increases in blood pressure, muscle tension, heart rate and adrenaline release

121
Q

Resistance

A

body attempts to resist or cope with stressors that cannot be avoided

An individual uses his or her physical and mental resources to response to the stressor in an appropriate way

122
Q

Resistance

A

body attempts to resist or cope with stressors that cannot be avoided

An individual uses his or her physical and mental resources to response to the stressor in an appropriate way

123
Q

Exhaustion

A

when the stressful exp[erience depletes your physical resources and your physiological stress response declines

this leads to physical problems and eventually to illness

124
Q

Acute stress

A

-enhances immunity
-increases number of lymphocytes and macrophages
-dependent on adrenal secretion; lasts 2-5 days

125
Q

Chronic stress

A

-suppresses immunity
-reduces number of lymphocytes and macrophages
-increases the severity of common illnesses

126
Q

Stress and Wound healing study

A

researchers gave students a biopsy wound on the hard palate using a “standardized wound machine”

they did it either during summer vacation or 3 days before first major exam

Results: students took an average of 3 days longer to heal during exam time (40% longer)

127
Q

What are the 4 common sources of stress?

A
  1. frustration–blocked goal
  2. Pressure– expectations to behave in certain ways
  3. Change– having to adapt
  4. Conflict– 2 or more incompatible motivations. Should I stay or should I go?
128
Q

Crowding to do with stress

A

increases arousal levels, spread of diseases

129
Q

Poverty to do with stress

A

is associated with reduced control over one’s enviroment

130
Q

Type A Personality

A

people who tend to be organized but, impatient and worry about time, and are ambitious, motivated and competitive but easily angered

131
Q

Type B peronality

A

People who are more laid back and characterized by patient, easygoing, and relaxed disposition

132
Q

Cynical and antagonistic hostility

A

people who are mistrustful of others and always ready to provoke mean, furious arguements

133
Q

Coronary issues and personality

A

In the 1960’s, doctors noted that people with Type A personalities tended to develop coronary problems earlier than Type B personalities

They found that Hostility was more important than other aspects of Type A personality in determining heart problems

134
Q

What is the significance of the Jesus movement?

A

-estimate over 3 million people were saved
-Lonnie Fisbee (music) led almost 85,00 people to the lord alone
-contemporary Christian music came out of this movement

135
Q

Change aspect–Holme and Rahe (1967)

A

They suggested that stress is the
degree to which people have to
change and readjust their lives in
response to an external event

136
Q

What did Holmes and Rahe devise that quantifies the amount of stress due to different life events?

A

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale

137
Q

What did they discover about stress and health?

A

not everyone who experiences stress becomes ill

some people experience extremely stressful situations and have nonadverse health affects

138
Q

Microstressors

A

Cumulative effects of stress

139
Q

What did Richard Lazarus think about stress?

A

it is subjective stress that causes health problems

140
Q

Control and Aggression study—Donnerstein & Wilson, 1976

A

In this study participants completes surveys while they experienced a loud or normal noise

loud: 95 db. (jackhammer at 50 feet)
normal: 55 db. (between a whisper and normal convo)

results: people were much more aggressive in the noisy environment

141
Q

Locus of control

A

A general expectation about whether the results of your actions are under your own control (internal locus) or beyond your control (external locus)

142
Q

Appraisal

A

The cognitive act of assessing and evaluating the potential threat and demands of an event

our cognitive appraisal of a stressor is really important. explains why petiole have different emotional responses to the same stressors

143
Q

Cognitive appraisal of a stressful event

A

when we think we have the resources to overcome the stressor, we experience a “challenge” response

when we think we don’t have the resources to overcome the stressor, we experience a “threat” response

144
Q

Problem Focused Coping

A

Attempting to reduce stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

145
Q

Emotion-Focused Coping

A

trying to find ways of reducing effects of negative emotions

146
Q

Coping Strategy #1–management

A

deal with the micro stressors in your life that you can change and control

little hassles add up otherwise and really matter

147
Q

Positive Psychology

A

Examines how positive emotions and personality traits enhance well-being, health and resilience

148
Q

Coping strategy #2–positive mood

A

intentionally participate in activities that put you in a positive mood

e.g watching funny movies

149
Q

Study about Positive Emotions having healthful benefits

A

study of 180 Catholic nuns found that longevity was related to frequency of positive emotions

nuns whose life stories contained the most words describing positive emotions lived on the average of 7 years longer (i.e happiness, interest, love, hope)

positive emotions may counteract high arousal caused by negative emotions/chronic stressors

150
Q

Coping strategy #3–optimism

A

adopt an optimistic outlook

151
Q

Optimism

A

The general expectation that things with go well despite setbacks

152
Q

Pessimism

A

The tendency to have a negative perception of life and expect negative outcomes

153
Q

Relative to pessimists, optimists tend to…

A

-have lower HPA activation in response to stress
-be less vulnerable to illness
-live longer
-be active problem solvers
-don’t give up or escape
-keep a sense of humour

154
Q

People with a pessimistic explanatory style are…

A

-more likely to get depressed
-more vulnerable to illness
-more likely than optimists to develop heart disease

155
Q

Coping strategy #4–relaxation

A

relaxation procedures can provide relief from headaches, high blood pressure, anxiety and insomnia

156
Q

Relation Training

A

had been used to help Type A personality heart attack survivors reduce their risk of future heart attacks

157
Q

Coping strategy #5–Religious Involvement

A

religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active

158
Q

Coping strategy #6– forgiveness

A

let go of grudges reduces physiological arousal and restores feelings of control

holding on to grievances increase blood pressure, heart rate and skin conductance

159
Q

Coping strategy #7– Confession

A

divulging private thoughts that make you ashamed or depressed is linked to better health

160
Q

Coping Strategy #8– spend time outdoors

A

research shows that spending 20-30 mins sitting or walking in a place that provides you with a sense of nature at least 3x a week significantly lowers cortisol levels

161
Q

Earthing

A

grounding the human body to earth reduces cortisol

resynchronizes cortisol hormone secretion in alignment with the natural 24-hour circadian rhythms profile

improves sleep and reduces pain and stress

162
Q

Coping strategy #9– exercise

A

aerobic exercises lessen the negative effects of stress and has a host of positive physical and psychological health benefits

super good for you if you have a high level of stress

163
Q

Coping strategy #10– maintain social connections

A

chronic social isolation is as great a mortality risk as smoking, obesity and high blood pressure

one estimate suggested that having social connections is associated with a 50% reduced risk of early death

Social Support related too…
*lower blood pressure
*lower cortisol
*better immune system functioning to fight illness

164
Q

Need to belong and well-being study

A

200 participants completes 6 bi-weekly surveys during first semester at university

-measure self esteem
-measured quality of social bonds
(social stress, number of friends)
-measures health problems
(classes missed due to illness, doctors visits)

lower self esteem students missed 4.6 more classes than higher self esteem students

lower self esteem students visiting the doctor 1.6 more times than higher self esteem students

results: higher self esteem resulted in fewer health problems

165
Q

Happy marriages have health benefits:

A

*unmarried women are 50% more likely to die from heart disease, several forms of cancer, cirrhosis of the liver and other preventable disease than are married women
*the number rises to 250% for unmarried men
*better off being single than in an unhappy marriage though.
*unhappy marriages and marriage disruption because of a spouse dying are among the most stressful events one can experience

166
Q

Bottom line about social support?

A

social support is reliably related to beneficial effects on the cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune system

why??
buffers stress
affective states
health promoting benefit

167
Q

social psychology

A

is the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to others (or the imagined presence of others)

168
Q

social psychologists

A

use scientific methods to study social behaviour (empirical approach)

they study the social influences that explain why the same person will act differently in different situations

169
Q

What are the 3 major themes in Social Psychology:

A

social thinking
social influence
social relations

they study how we think about situations and how situations affect us and how we affect one another through social interactions.

170
Q

Social Thinking

A

Topics:
-attributions (fundamental attribution error)
-attitudes and attitude change (central vs. peripheral route to persuasion… cognitive dissonance theory)

171
Q

attributions

A

the reasons we provide for why others do what they do

172
Q

attribution theory

A

people are motivated to explain their own and other people’s behaviour by attributing causes of that behaviour to a situation or a disposition

173
Q

external/situational attribution

A

something in the situation or environment caused the behaviour

174
Q

internal/disposition also attribution

A

something in the person (e.g. traits or motive) caused the behaviour

175
Q

the fundamental attribution error

A

the tendency, when analyzing others behaviour, to over estimate the influence of personal traits and underestimate the effect of the situation

that is to attribute behaviour to dispositions over situations

176
Q

Take home message about the fundamental attribution error

A

over default assumption is that other people are doing things because of who they are

we don’t take into account the power of the situation

177
Q

What’s the huge exception to the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)?

A

we’re NOT prone to the fundamental attribution error when explaining our own behaviour

we have something called “self serving biases”—-habits of thinking that make us feel good about ourselves

178
Q

Implications for relationships—happy couples

A

make situational explanations for negative behaviour (“he forgot about our date because didn’t get much sleep last night”)

make disposition all attributions for positive behaviour (“he got me flowers because he is such a thoughtful person”)

179
Q

implications for relationships—unhappy couples

A

make dispositional attributions for negative behaviour (“he forgot about our date because he is a thoughtless jerk”)

make situational attributions for positive behaviour (“he bought me flowers out of obligation”)

180
Q

why should you beware of the fundamental attribution error?

A

Karney and Bradbury (2000) classified newlyweds according to their “attributional style”

those prone to attributing to their partners slip ups to permanent internal characteristics rather than temporary external factors were much for likely to wind up divorcing

181
Q

What should you do to avoid this problem with FAE?

A

Think before you blame:

research shows that we make the fundamental attribution error automatically, but once you’re aware of it, you can consciously compensate.

when you find yourself blaming your partners mistake on a character flaw or permanent problem. force yourself to consider more compassionate explanations: then give your partner the benefit of the doubt

182
Q

Example of avoiding the FAE

A

your romantic partner shows up late to a special date at a nice restaurant

instead of concluding that they are unreliable, selfish, rude or that they don’t love you anymore

make external attributions: traffic was bad, a crisis at the office etc

183
Q

What are the 2 different ways we think about persuasive messages?

A

Central route persuasion (thinking hard)

Peripheral route persuasion (little thinking)

184
Q

central route persuasion

A

offers evidence and arguments to trigger thoughtful responses

185
Q

peripheral route persuasion

A

uses incidental cues to try to produce fast but relatively thoughtless changes in attitudes

186
Q

Central route—motivation

A

people will be more likely to process info through the central route rn they are highly motivated, and when they have the knowledge or expertise to understand the info

187
Q

central route—-opportunity

A

central route is effective when people have sufficient time and freedom from distraction, and when the info is not overwhelmingly complex relative to their knowledge

188
Q

What do we do when we don’t have time to analyze all the issues?

A

we often use peripheral route by using simple rule-of-thumb heuristics

-“trust the experts”
-“long messages are credible”
-speaker is articulate and appealing
-has apparently good motives
-has several arguments

these are examples that will usually cause us to take the easy peripheral route and accept the message without much thought

189
Q

Summary of central vs. peripheral processing

A

The central route is reflective, requires mental effort, and relies on cognitive elaboration (motivation—willingness, ability—understand)

The peripheral route is reflexive, based on mental shortcuts (credibility, heuristic cues)

190
Q

cognitive dissonance

A

the tension (discomfort) that arises when our attitudes are inconsistent with our behaviour or when we are simultaneously aware of two conflicting attitudes

it feels uncomfortable to have inconsistent thoughts, feelings and behaviour

191
Q

Dissonance—changing behaviour vs. attitudes

A

-either of these two methods will reduce dissonance
-people tend to use the easiest available method
-it is often easier to change attitudes than behaviour

192
Q

Cognitive dissonance study (festinger & carlsmith, 1959)

A

-participants complete a boring task
-induced to lie about how fun the task was to another participant for either $1 or $20
-asked by research assistant how fun the task really was after the lie

results:
people who lied for $1 felt they had to “justify” more for the dollar so they lied to the research assistant after by changing their attitude towards the study

193
Q

What areas of our life could cognitive dissonance affect?

A

-justifying unhealthy behaviour
-liking the choices we make
-finding meaning in terrible experiences

194
Q

social norms

A

written/unwritten guidelines for how to behave in social contexts

195
Q

social roles

A

specific set of behaviours that are associated with a position in a group (i.e. professor, student)

196
Q

social influences

A

shape our behaviour, thoughts and feelings

197
Q

conformity

A

a change in behaviour due to the real or imagined influence of others

198
Q

chameleon effect

A

the nonconscious mimicry of the postures, mannerisms, and facial expressions of one’s interaction partner

199
Q

Verbal mimicry and tipping (2003)

A

servers mimicked or didn’t mimic customers by repeating their order back to them

mimicked tipped 81% of time (average = $2.11)

non-mimicked tipped 61% of time (average = $1.25)

200
Q

social pressure study (Asch, 1951)

A

given a question with an obvious right answer (pick the line of out 3 that matches another line)

others around them all picked an obviously wrong answer.

how did it affect the person in the study?

75% of the participants confirmed at least once, giving an answer they knew to be wrong

201
Q

obedience

A

social influence in which a person complies with a direct request

especially obedience to authority: leaders, bosses, parents, police, doctors

202
Q

Milgram’s (1963) obedience study

A

“teachers” believe they are delivering shocks to a “learner” (appear to be randomly assigned to the roles)

everytime the learner gets an answer wrong, he gets a shock that increases by 15 volts everytime

strongly encouraged by experimenter to continue, even when the “learner” protests

went to such a high voltage that eventually the the “learners” stopped answering and went silent (simulating death)

results: over 60% of people kept administering shocks all the way until “death”

203
Q

need for social acceptance (normative social influence)

A

people sometimes conform because they want to be liked or they fear rejection

204
Q

need for information (informational social influence)

A

sometimes people also conform to be right: because they believe others know what to do better than they do

205
Q

social norms

A

rules or expectations, written or unwritten, on how people should behave

i.e. people shouldn’t go into someone else’s house and start smoking

206
Q

social roles

A

are shared expectations by group members how particular people in the group are supposed to behave

i.e. women in the kitchen

207
Q

The Stanford Prison Experiment

A

Phil Zimbardo (1971)

24 Stanford undergrad students, 1/2 assigned to be “guards” and 1/2 assigned to be “prisoners”

supposed to be a 14 day experiment but cancelled after 6 days because:
-rioting in the second day
-prisoner went “crazy”
-sleep deprivation
-bathroom denied and stripped
-solitary confinement
-1/3 “sadistic” by day 6

this is because people adopted their roles

208
Q

The bystander effect study (1968)

A

-“Experiences at University” study
-step into booth
-believe that there are 1-5 others in the study
-actually no other (just tape recorders of others answers)
-first “participant” mentions they have epilepsy
-emergency, the first participant starts to have a seizure and pleas for help

results: if the person thought they were the only one listening 90% went to go help. but as there was more people in the study the percentage of those who helped went down significantly. people thought the others would help.

209
Q

bystander effect

A

the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them will help

210
Q

diffusion of responsibility

A

everyone assumes that someone else will help, and as a result, no one does

the thought: “someone else will do something!”

211
Q

pluralistic ignorance

A

a false impression of how others are thinking, feeling, or responding

212
Q

pluralistic ignorance study (1987)

A

gave students impossible to understand articles

then asked if they had any questions

no one raised their hand to tell the prof that they did not understand

results: every individual was confused. but because nobody else is letting on that they’re confused, everybody also thinks that everyone else is understanding the article

213
Q

pluralistic ignorance study (interpret an emergency) 1968

A

smoke pouring in from the sides of a testing room

if people were alone in the room they were more likely to report the smoke

those in groups looked around but waited way longer to report the smoke because no one else in the group was reacting to it

214
Q

social facilitation

A

the presence of others arouses people, improving performance on easy or well-learned tasks but decreasing performance on difficult tasks

215
Q

social loafing

A

tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal then when individually accountable

216
Q

the causes of social loafing

A

acting as part of a group and feeling less accountable (their individual performance can’t be evaluated)

feeling individual contributions does not matter

taking advantage when there is lack of identification with the group

217
Q

groupthink

A

a tendency for all members of a group to think alike for the sake of harmony and to suppress disagreement

218
Q

what are the symptoms of groupthink?

A

an illusion of invulnerability
self-censorship
pressure on dissenters to conform
an illusion of unanimity

219
Q

deindividuation

A

the loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when people are in a group, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts because of a reduced sense of self

220
Q

interlinkages among left and right-leaning tweets (polarization)

A

the internet often doesn’t expose us to differing viewpoints: instead it connects and magnifies the inclinations of likeminded people

showed with twitter users:

people overwhelmingly sent messages to and retweeted messages from those who share their liberal (blue) or conservative (red) ideology

221
Q

group polarization

A

if a group is like minded, discussion strengthens, rather than moderates, prevailing opinions

222
Q

in group

A

social definition of who we are— and are not (our group)

223
Q

out group

A

are people not in our group, who are perceived as different

224
Q

ingroup bias

A

favouring our own group

225
Q

explicit processes

A

conscious, controlled and effort full

226
Q

implicit processes

A

unconscious, automatic, rapid

227
Q

reflective bodily responses

A

unconscious body language

i.e. startle eye blink, face processing, social distance

228
Q

unconscious patronization

A

lower expectations, inflated praise and insufficient critical for minority student achievement

229
Q

implicit racial associations

A

Implicit Associarion Test (IAT) results: even people who deny racial prejudice may carry negative associations with certain groups

tells you whether you have implicit prejudices towards specific groups of people

important note:
these tests lack reliability and validity, so take results with a grain of salt

230
Q

race influenced perceptions

A

white perceives tend to “over attribute” hostility to Black make faces, being quicker to perceive them as angry relative to white male faces

231
Q

social identities

A

people associate themselves with others and form groups

Psych 101 (3 decks)

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