Exam 3 Flashcards
The oldest known evidence for bacterial life on Earth are:
Spirochetes
Stromatolites
Cell Walls
Archaea
Algae
Stromatolites
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick cell wall made of large amounts of peptidoglycan.
True
False
True
Horizontal (or lateral) gene transfer is an important mechanism of recombination present in bacteria that experience strictly clonal evolution.
True
False
False
Select all of the ways that bacteria differ from eukaryotic cells (there may be more than one answer - select all that are correct):
Bacteria do not have spliceosomal introns.
Bacteria do not have genomes.
Bacteria do not have a nucleus.
Bacteria do not have organelles, like mitochondria or chloroplasts.
Bacteria have cell walls made from peptidoglycan.
Bacteria do not have spliceosomal introns.
Bacteria do not have a nucleus.
Bacteria do not have organelles, like mitochondria or chloroplasts.
Bacteria have cell walls made from peptidoglycan.
What is the general name for a bacterium (singular form of bacteria) that is spiral or ‘corkscrew’ in shape?
Coccus
Sporeal
Bacillus
Spirochete
Vibrio
Spirochete
What is the main structure bacteria use for motility?
Ribosomes
Flagella
Cell membrane
Pili
Flagella
Rich Lenski’s experiment has shown, to the surprise of many, that which force of evolution continues to act on bacterial genomes despite a constant environment:
Natural selection
Genetic drift
Migration
Mutation
Natural Selection
The surface-to-volume ratio of bacteria, which is smaller than eukaryotic cells, reflects the irregular shapes of many bacterial cells.
True
False
False
Many bacterial species do not cause disease in most hosts upon or in which they live. When a bacteria is found on/in a host without causing disease in the host, the host is called what?
A floral member
A carrier
A mundanity
Lucky
A carrier
Bacterial genomes are roughly what size compared to the human genome?
~1/100th the size of the human genome
~10 times bigger than the human genome
Approximately the same size as the human genome
~1/10th the size of the human genome
~1/1000th the size of the human genome
~1/1000th the size of the human genome
The first major ‘innovation’ amongst bacteria was the evolution of cyanobacteria ~3.2 billion years-ago. The emergence of these bacteria profoundly changed the environment of Earth by:
Forming the first multicellular organisms
Warming the Earth
Producing oxygen for the environment
Becoming eukaryotes ~2.5 billion years-go
Producing oxygen for the environment
What two organelles of eukaryotes are likely descended from ancient bacteria that became endosymbiotes?
Endoplasmic reticulum
Vacuoles
Mitochondria
Nucleolus
Chloroplasts
mitochondria and chloroplasts
Bacterial genomes are made of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) and are typically composed of a dozen or so large chromosomes.
True
False
False
Co-evolution of bacteria and animals is evidenced by what animal phenotype(s)? (You may choose more than one.)
The consumption of grass by some mammals
The human ability to see in color
The production of vitamin K in the human gut
The deadly bite of the komodo dragon
The, until 2016, pathetic performance of the Cubs in the playoffs (on the few occasions they qualified)
The deadly bite of the komodo dragon
The consumption of grass by some mammals
The production of vitamin K in the human gut
What are common access points for pathogenic bacteria to enter the body?
Insults to the skin
Transposition through the body via radiological imaging devices
Ingestion through the gastrointestinal tract
Inhalation into the respiratory tissues
Infiltration to the urogenital tract
Insults to the skin
Ingestion through the gastrointestinal tract
Inhalation into the respiratory tissues
Infiltration to the urogenital tract
What notable symptom of the plague is described in its name?
Internal bleeding
Delirium or stupor
Loss of motor control
Debilitating fever
Swelling and discoloration of the lymph nodes
Swelling and discoloration of the lymph nodes
Though we are reasonably certain that historical pandemic known today as “The Black Death” was an outbreak of plague caused by Yersinia pestis, which of the following outbreaks, according to Holmes, have also been seriously considered possible instances of this bacteria in historical record (check all that apply)?
The Antonine Plague
The Plague of Athens
The Biblical Plagues of Egypt
Napoleon’s Plague
The Justinian Plague
The Justinian Plague
The Plague of Athens
What is the spes phthisica that Bynum discusses in relation to Violetta?
-The false ‘recovery’ that often signaled the very last stages of tuberculosis, contrarily expressed as renewed vigor or elation.
-The unattainable decency of marriage that her disease denied her, symbolising the fact that tuberculosis could be exacerbated by class conditions.
- The classic name for the visage of grace and quietude that overcomes her face as she succumbs to her disease but finds redemption in her faith.
-The pre-existing condition that, accompanying tuberculosis sets the stage for the tragedy describe in La Traviata.
- It is simply the Latin name for a death bed confession, which played into the Romantic understanding of tuberculosis.
-The false ‘recovery’ that often signaled the very last stages of tuberculosis, contrarily expressed as renewed vigor or elation.
Following their sequencing of Yersinia pestis taken from a handful of individuals interred in London, England 1348-1350, what analysis do Bos et al. make regarding their strains in phylogenetic relationship to other recorded strains of this bacteria?
- All variants of Y. pestis are likely of African origin.
- It is certain that there were more than one strain of Y. pestis circulating in London during the 1348 outbreak (most likely 5 or 6).
- It is most likely that the differences between samples are the result of rapid microevolution.
-The strain sequenced by Bos et al. represents a novel spillover event, never to be seen again.
It is most likely that the differences between samples are the result of rapid microevolution.
What, according to Bynum, is often the aetiology for gastrointestinal infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis?
-Swallowing one’s own bacilli-laden sputum.
-Prolonged contact with an afflicted individual (130 hours over all, not necessarily constant).
- From sneezes and coughs, even in passing.
- In cold climatic situations, when not properly clothed.
- It may sound odd to our modern ears, but by eating contaminated badger meat.
Swallowing one’s own bacilli-laden sputum.
What event, which occurred prior to the Black Death, is thought to be partially responsible for the high mortality rates of that Yersinia pestis epidemic?
The European Renaissance
The European Enlightenment
The Wars of the Roses
The Great Famine
The Hundred Years War
The Great Famine
The bubonic form of plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is spread from person to person through aspirated bacteria and is the most lethal form of plague disease.
True
False
False
Which of the following plague epidemics/pandemics are definitively known to have been caused by Yersinia pestis? (You may choose more than one.)
The Black Death
Plague of Justinian
19th Century Asian Pandemic
Plague of Athens
The White Plague
The Black Death
Plague of Justinian
19th Century Asian Pandemic
Important routes of Yersinia pestis infection for humans are (you may choose more than one):
By breathing in aspirated bacteria
By being bitten by an infected flea
By close contact with urine
By close contact with infected animals
By breathing in miasma (if you aren’t wearing a plague mask)
By breathing in aspirated bacteria
By being bitten by an infected flea
By close contact with infected animals
A side-effect of the mass mortality caused by the plague during the Black Death was:
Lower cost of labor
Increase in the population living in cities
Increased stability of regimes across Europe
A shortage of labor
A reinvestment in the feudal system and unquestioned obedience toward the Church
A shortage of labor
Strong evidence that the Black Death epidemic was caused by Yersinia pestis was provided by (you may choose more than one):
Graphic art that depicted buboes
Descriptions of fevers and mass death
Written descriptions of discolored swellings in the groin and armpits
Ancient DNA of Yersinia pestis from plague victims in London
The presence of outrageous piles of brown rat bones dating from the early 1340s C.E.
Graphic art that depicted buboes
Written descriptions of discolored swellings in the groin and armpits
Ancient DNA of Yersinia pestis from plague victims in London
Many people are host to potentially pathogenic bacteria, and yet they are not sick. Relative to their status as hosts of these bacteria, these individuals are called:
Lucky
Pathovars
Zoologists
Immune
Carriers
Carriers
What form of horizontal gene transfer involves phages?
Transformation
Transduction
Conjugation
Phagocytosis
Endocytosis
Transduction
The genomes of bacteria that become endosymbionts typically expand (i.e., become larger) in response to their new environment.
True
False
False
Strains of bacteria that evolve higher rates of change are called:
Mutators
Quick strains
Adaptors
Transient strains
Unstable
Mutators
What historical geopolitical activities correspond with the dispersal of L4 lineage of M. tuberculosis (the most widely dispersed lineage), according to Brynildsrud et al.?
The Islamic Conquests
The Fall of the Roman Empire
Global European Colonialism
The Viking Age
The Discovery of the Northwest Passage
Global European Colonialism
Anti-microbial resistance (AMR) alleles in M.tb increase in frequency due to recombination between strains, and these alleles disperse quickly from their country of origin to regions across multiple continents.
True
False
False
As summarized my Macomber et al., fluoroquinolone-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae began to regularly appear in the 1990s in which region of the world?
Southern Africa
South Africa
Canada
Central Europe
East/Southeast Asia
East/Southeast Asia
To stop the spread of quinolone-resistant N. gonorrhea in a Michigan county, public health officers did what:
Distribute condoms to the entire county
Distribute penicillin pills to all males
Perform community outreach to the LGBTQ community about STIs
Close local gyms, pools, and resorts
Stop prescribing ciprofloxacin (‘cipro’)
Stop prescribing ciprofloxacin (‘cipro’)
Which age-group has drawn special attention from efforts to generate herd immunity against meningococci, because they have been identified as prone to amplify and circulate Neisseria meningitides through asymptomatic transmission?
Infants
Adolescents
Married Adults
Elderly
Everyone
Adolescents
Which serogroup of Neisseria meningitis is associated with the annual Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, but not to pre-World War II outbreaks in industrialized countries?
Serogroup A
Serogroup B
Serogroup C
Serogroup W
Serogroup X
Serogroup Y
Serogroup W
In a comment piece for Genome Biology, Gregory Petsko surprisingly argues that we are spending too much money in the United States on defense against bioterrorism. What does Petsko feel should be our focus be instead?
Biodefense against infectious diseases in general
Cyberdefense against malicious foreign actors
Intelligence-gathering against terror networks like Al-Qaeda
Nuclear disarmament inducements for rogue nations
Directing more funding to the arts, because a life without art is not worth living.
Biodefense against infectious diseases in general
Genome sequencing was able to identify variation at a finer level than microscope or culture assays could. Specifically, what variation did genome sequencing identify that narrowed the possible origins of the anthrax in the letters? (You may choose more than one answer.)
-That the genetic variation of the anthrax in the letters was most closely related to Ames strains from Porton Down
- That each laboratory culture of B. anthrax held unique combinations of mutations
- That each letter contained anthrax spores from different strains, some of which were Ames strain
-The anthrax bacteria used in the attacks came from a foreign adversary
-The anthrax bacteria from each letter were, genomically, from the same source
-The anthrax bacteria from each letter were, genomically, from the same source
-That each laboratory culture of B. anthrax held unique combinations of mutations
Which of the following was NOT used by Read et al. to identify genetic differences between the Porton and Florida isolates of the Ames strain of B. anthracis?
SNPs
VNTRs
indels
CRISPR
CRISPR
The Ames B. anthrax isolate is the ‘standard’ used by the US military in their defensive biological weapons research. This strain has been shared with the UK government and kept at their defense bioweapons facility at Porton Down; otherwise, the strain is maintained only by highly restricted labs available to the the military. Where and when was the Ames strain first isolated?
Iowa, 1981
Iowa, 1939
Texas, 1981
Nebraska, 1939
Kansas, 1968
Texas, 1981
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a very successful human pathogen. How many people on Earth, roughly, are infected with this bacterium?
200,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
10,000,000
2,000,000,000
2,000,000,000
Co-infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with this other pathogen is responsible for increasing the probability of developing active tuberculosis infections?
Dengue virus
HIV
Variola virus
Yersinia pestis
Measles virus
HIV
Over the past few decades, the decline in deaths due to meningococcal disease has largely been due to:
-Eradication of Neisseria meningitides from the environment
- Identification of antibiotics effective against Haemophilus influenzae
-Discovery of antibiotics effective against Neisseria species generally
-Decrease use of multi-person dorm rooms and communal bathrooms
-Widespread vaccinations against bacterial agents of meningitis
Widespread vaccinations against bacterial agents of meningitis
Which of the following statements does NOT accurately reflect what we know today about drug resistance in M.tb?
-The most significant risk factor for acquiring an MDR-TB infection is having lived in or travelled to a former Soviet republic.
-There are strains of M.tb that appear to be completely drug resistant.
- Amongst M.tb strains spread by European colonialism, drug resistance arises repeatedly and independently in multiple countries.
-Drug resistant alleles are currently spreading through recombination and horizontal gene transfer between M.tb strains.
-MDR-TB linages may be moved between continents when people move, but most drug resistant strains remain localized.
Drug resistant alleles are currently spreading through recombination and horizontal gene transfer between M.tb strains.
What important bacterial structure plays a role in pathogenesis and are important virulence factors for N. meningitides and B. anthracis?
Pili
Nucleus
Capsule
Golgi apparatus
Flagellum
Capsule
Current M.tb infections in cows (and seals and badgers) are the product of a host-jump from humans.
True
False
True
Similar to M.tb, Neisseria gonorrheae infections in humans are increasingly caused be drug resistance bacteria due to the speed at which drug resistant alleles spread due to horizontal gene transfer.
True
False
False
Though Neisseria meningitides causes disease in human populations throughout the world, what geographic area has the highest incidence of meningococcal disease, especially during epidemics?
North America
Mexico
China
Australia
The Sahel
The Sahel
What evidence allowed researchers to determine that the common ancestor M.tb existed as recently as 3,000- to 5,000-years-ago?
- The existence of M.tb infections in all human populations
- Historical treatises describing tuberculosis disease
- Ancient DNA from M.tb bacteria and the use of molecular clocks
- Infection of many animals, from seals to badgers, with a sub-lineage of M.tb commonly called Mycobacterium bovis
- It is a little known fact, but a select group of scientists have access to a time machine, and they were able to observe the first person with tuberculosis, who dies in 2101 B.C.E.
Ancient DNA from M.tb bacteria and the use of molecular clocks
What antibiotic was initially used to treat gonorrhea infections, and is still prescribed today, though drug resistance is an increasingly widespread problem?
Penicillin
Hydroxychloroquine
Chloroquine
Quinine
Paracetamol
Penicillin
Which of the following, according to Holden et al., is true about the emergence and spread of MRSA, or methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (check all that apply)?
- Resistance is correlated with the use of fluoroquinolones
-Country-specific antibiotic regimes have a role in shaping the resistance of MRSA - MRSA are not a “measurably evolving population” because their rapid mutation rate makes it difficult to accurately measure evolutionary events in the genome
-MRSA are particularly successful in hospital settings
- Resistance is correlated with the use of fluoroquinolones
- Country-specific antibiotic regimes have a role in shaping the resistance of MRSA
- MRSA are particularly successful in hospital settings
Holden et al. were able to predict the drug resistance profile of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria from genome sequences with ~99% accuracy.
True
False
True
The presence of yaws-causing bacteria in a young infant is definitive, positive proof for congenital yaws infections in the Americas, and the potential for Treponema pallidum pertenue to cross the placental barrier in utero.
True
False
False
In their “phylogenetic comparison of… historic strains with contemporary T. pallidum strains,” Schuenemann et al. “detected ambiguous SNP patterns” which they took to indicate the possibility of evolutionary events that are considered non-existent in T. pallidum subspecies. What unlikely event did they feel these SNP patterns indicated?
Recombination
Clonal replication
Strong selection pressure from hospital settings
Reassortment
Recombination
At the time of publication of Schuenemann et al.’s manuscript in 2018, the only ancient Treponema pallidum genetic data have been recovered from: (you may choose more than 1 answer)
A > 1,000-year-old mummy from Peru, associated with seals
A ~ 200-year-old mummy
A museum specimen from the Mutter museum in Philadelphia
Very young children from Europe within the past 500 years
Very young children from Europe within the past 500 years
A ~ 200-year-old mummy
Which of the following best describes the effect that the ancient DNA sequencing carried out by Schuenemann et al. had on the argument concerning the origin of syphilis?
Their findings confirm the New World origin hypothesis
Their findings confirm the Multiregional origin hypothesis
Their findings cannot really speak to the veracity of either the New World or Multiregional hypothesis
Their findings indicate a third, heretofore unknown possibility that the origin of syphilis is in Old World monkeys
Their findings cannot really speak to the veracity of either the New World or Multiregional hypothesis
What public health measure do Holt et al. warn–despite the good it might do overall–will likely lead to a rise in S. sonnei incidence in areas of the developing world, where it was not prevalent before?
Infrastructure expansion
Improvement of drinking water quality
Reduced carbon emissions
Transitioning to organic farming
Improvement of drinking water quality
Holt et al. speculate that the broad dissemination of S. sonnei type III is likely due to the independent addition of integrons conveying drug resistance multiple times by this lineage.
True
False
True
The presence of isolates from Europe throughout the phylogeny of Shigella sonnei are indicative of:
Back migration to Europe from South Asia
The emergence of drug resistance in the developing world
Back migration to Europe from Africa
An origin in Europe
An origin in Europe
Holt et al. concluded that Shigella sonnei emerged less than 500 years ago, and sequenced samples belonging to four lineages of the bacterium. Which lineage had only a sole isolate in their sample?
I
II
III
IV
I
What important bacterial structure plays a role in pathogenesis and are important virulence factors for N. meningitides and B. anthracis?
Pili
Nucleus
Capsule
Golgi apparatus
Flagellum
Capsule
What form of anthrax disease has the highest case fatality rate?
Inhalational
Venereal
Gastrointestinal
Cutaneous
Oxonian
Inhalational
What clues did the authorities use to identify the origin of the anthrax bacteria used in the US Postal Service attacks? (You may choose more than 1 answer.)
-The culprit confessed
-Fingerprint analysis linked the letters to a Federal employee
-Genome sequence data linked the bacteria to a lab strain
-The source of the Bacillus anthracis used in the attack was linked to a university lab
-The bacterial spores used in the attack must have come from a sophisticated weapons lab
-The bacterial spores used in the attack must have come from a sophisticated weapons lab
-Genome sequence data linked the bacteria to a lab strain
Escherichia coli is a species that is a sub-lineage of the genus Shigella bacteria.
True
False
False
Which strain of E. coli is most associated with outbreaks of severe disease in humans?
Ames strain
H5:N1 strain
Yersinia strain
Bacillus E. coli
O157:H7 strain
O157:H7 strain
How many sub-species of Treponema pallidum cause disease in humans?
2
3
4
5
There are no sub-species of Treponema pallidum
4
Whereas E. coli infections have predictable seasons, with infections peaking during Summer and Fall, there is no predictable “syphilis season” to speak of.
True
False
True
The Tuskegee Study was a short (a couple of years) experiment of how syphilis symptoms progress in a group of African-American men done without their consent by groups of rogue scientists.
True
False
False
Genetic work with Treponema pallidum pallidum has been difficult because (you may choose more than one):
- The genome is very large by the standards of bacteria
-Syphilis infections are rare, so the bacterium is hard to collect
-T pallidum pallidum bacteria are so small that they are hard to extract, or even see under a powerful microscope
-Culturing Treponema bacteria, often required for DNA sequencing, in the lab is very difficult
Culturing Treponema bacteria, often required for DNA sequencing, in the lab is very difficult
As discussed in class, for which bacteria is recombination centrally important to the evolution of their pathogenic lifestyle? (you may choose more than one)
Escherichia coli
Bacillus anthracis
Treponema pallidum pallidum
Neisseria gonorrheae
Trick question - recombination is not important for bacteria
Neisseria gonorrheae
Escherichia coli
Why is the figure $40 billion relevant to the cholera outbreak in Haiti as described by Katz? (Mark all that apply.)
- It is the amount Haitian plaintiffs were seeking against the United Nations.
- It is almost five times the total annual budget for peacekeeping worldwide.
-It is a settlement value that the rapporteur for the United Nations calls “unrealistic.” - It is a prohibitive number that the rapporteur for the United Nations calls “a warning” of the consequences if countries start holding the UN responsible for things like negligently contaminating drinking water with cholera.
- It is the amount Haitian plaintiffs were seeking against the United Nations.
- It is almost five times the total annual budget for peacekeeping worldwide.
-It is a settlement value that the rapporteur for the United Nations calls “unrealistic.” - It is a prohibitive number that the rapporteur for the United Nations calls “a warning” of the consequences if countries start holding the UN responsible for things like negligently contaminating drinking water with cholera.
According to reporting by Katz in 2011, the head of the UN finally admitted responsibility for the 2010 epidemic, which started when peacekeepers introduced V. cholerae bacteria to Haiti, but that the UN is not subject to national laws and thus cannot be legally held to account.
True
False
False
One saving grace of the cholera outbreak in Haiti that Eppinger and Associates examined, was that the pattern of human mediated dispersal was limited to the onset of the outbreak, before UN forces were able to take swift action to ameliorate their inadvertent contamination of local water sources.
True
False
False
Phylogeographic analysis of V. cholerae genomes identified the origin of the bacteria responsible for the 2010 epidemic in Haiti to be:
O11 strain bacteria from Pakistan
non-O1 strain bacteria from the Dominican Republic
O1 strain bacteria from Nepal
non-01 strain bacteria from Haiti
O1 strain bacteria from Pakistan
O1 strain bacteria from Nepal
Which of the following is NOT listed by Specter as a one of the four pathogens that often coinfect people who contract lyme disease, as they are also known to commonly be carried by black-legged ticks?
Anaplasma phagocytophilium
Babesia microti
Borrelia miyamotoi
Plasmodium falciparum
Plasmodium falciparum
Long-term antibiotic treatment of Lyme disease is not standard practice because: (Mark all that apply.)
- there is no evidence that courses of antibiotics extending for longer than a month improve disease outcomes
- the Lyme bacteria was engineered on Plum Island to resist antibiotic treatment
- a conspiracy between pharmaceutical companies and physicians blocks the extended use of antibiotics to cure patients
- the use of potent antibiotics, particularly those delivered by I.V., for extended periods of times involves many possible risks
- the use of potent antibiotics, particularly those delivered by I.V., for extended periods of times involves many possible risks
- there is no evidence that courses of antibiotics extending for longer than a month improve disease outcomes
According to Poland, which of the following issues contributed to the withdrawal of the only licensed Lyme vaccine in the United States of America? (Mark all that apply.)
concerns about vaccine safety
low public demand
vaccine cost
uncertainty regarding the risk of the disease
concerns about vaccine safety
low public demand
Withdrawal of the human Lyme disease vaccines were not a significant blow to public health because the vaccines were only 40% to 50% effective against symptomatic disease, even after 3 doses.
True
False
False
Using a study design which included sequencing two species of NHP and comparing analyses with other NHP and human populations, Clayton et al. assert the likely cause of captive primate microbiome perturbation is loss of dietary fiber–a condition which greatly resembles the changes in the gut microbiome of humans who undergo “Westernization.” Which of the following are NOT other potential causes the authors claim they have rule out in the process of their study? (Choose all that apply.)
host genetics
antibiotic exposure
birth in captivity
astronomy
astronomy
Captive non-human primates, and humans with Westernized diets, show increases in gut microbiota from which groups?
Methanospaera
Treponema
Akkermansia
Bacteroides
Prevotella
Bacteroides
Prevotella
Which part of the world is considered to be the ultimate source of Vibrio cholerae driving each of the 7 pandemics that have occurred over the past two-and-a-half centuries?
Antartica
South America
Europe
Africa
South Asia
South Asia
What drawback do cholera vaccines have, generally?
They cost thousands of dollars per dose
Their peak effectiveness is less than 50%
Most of them require more than 5 doses
The immunity they provide wanes quickly, usually after only a couple of years
None have been approved for distribution/use in the United States
The immunity they provide wanes quickly, usually after only a couple of years
In technical literature, microbiota refers to the collection of micro-organisms (i.e., species classification) in a particular environment and microbiome refers to the collection of genes or functions present in a particular environment.
True
False
True
Modern genetic investigations of microbiomes typically involves sequencing all genomic DNA from all bacteria, not just specific regions or genes (.e.g, 16s ribosomal RNA).
True
False
True
Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, is vectored by ticks from what genus? (Nota bene: in binomial nomenclature, organisms are named thus: Genus species.)
Culex
Ixodes
Aedes
Ricinus
Anopheles
Ixodes
The most important mammalian host (the amplification host) for B. burgdorferi in the United States is:
White-tailed deer
White-footed mice
Deer-ticks
Ferrets
Black-footed LaCrosse badgers
White-footed mice
The Vibrio cholerae bacteria that caused the cholera outbreak in Haiti, which started in 2010 after a devastating earthquake, are most closely related to V. cholerae bacteria from which country?
Nepal
Mexico
Peru
India
Nigeria
Nepal
The major intervention we currently use to slow the spread of Borrelia burgdorferi is widespread vaccination of people throughout the range of the tick vector.
True
False
False
Treponema bacteria closely related to Treponema pallidum of humans has been found in what other animals?
Baboons
Pigeons
Mandrills
Chimpanzees
Howler monkeys
Baboons
The disease called bejel is associated with / caused by which species of Treponema bacteria?
Treponema pallidum pallidum
Treponema bejeliaze
Treponema pallidum endemicum
Treponema leprae
Treponema albertum
Treponema pallidum endemicum
