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Diversity of Form and Function > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

cochlea

A

coiled, fluid filled tube where sound energy is transduced to electric signals

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2
Q

skeletal systems

A

mostly what animals use for a rigid support structure to attach muscles to and move

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3
Q

how many bones do humans have

A

over 200

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4
Q

hydrostatic skeleton

A

use a cavity filled with water to support organism
ex. jellyfish

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5
Q

exoskeleton

A

rigid external envelope that supports and protects the tissues of an organism
ex. insects (grasshoppers)

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6
Q

endoskeleton

A

rigid internal structure that provides support and locomotion to an organism
ex. humans, dogs

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7
Q

cuticle

A

type of exoskeleton that covers the outer surface of an arthropod

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8
Q

chiton

A

nitrogen containing polysaccharide that makes up an exoskeleton

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9
Q

joints

A

how bones are attached to each other

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10
Q

cartilage cells

A

metric of tough and rubbery mix of polysaccharides and protein (collagen

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11
Q

bone

A

has collagen fibers, but is harder thanks to calcium phosphate.
also is a reservoir for calcium

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12
Q

osteoblasts

A

cells that put new matrix material on bone surfaces

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13
Q

osteocytes

A

formerly osteoblasts, now inside the cavities in bone

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14
Q

osteoclasts

A

cells that break down old bone and release calcium from bone into the extracellular fluid

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15
Q

membranous bone

A

forms on a scaffold of connective tissue membrane

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16
Q

cartilage bone

A

first forms a cartilage structure that looks like a future, mature bone, then hardens into an actual bone

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17
Q

epiphyseal plates

A

places where cartilage forms between ossification centers

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18
Q

compact bone

A

solid and hard

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19
Q

cancellous bone

A

rigid but has internal cavities and looks spongey

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20
Q

compact bone

A

the hard white outer region

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21
Q

marrow

A

living tissue that stores red blood cells in cavities

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22
Q

spongy bone

A

honeycombed with many small cavities inside compact bone

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23
Q

joint

A

when two or more bones come together

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24
Q

example of ball and socket joint

A

hip

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25
Q

example of pivot joint

A

neck- back and forth movement

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26
Q

example of saddle joint

A

bottom of thumb

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27
Q

example of ellipsoid joint

A

wrist

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28
Q

example of hinge joint

A

knee

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29
Q

example of plane joint

A

ankle- back and fourth movement

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30
Q

tendons

A

straps of connective tissue that connect muscles to bones

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31
Q

ligaments

A

attach bone to bone

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32
Q

tendons

A

attach muscle to bone

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33
Q

antagonistic pairs

A

flexor and extensor muscles work in these to operate the joint

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34
Q

why was the evolution of jaws so important

A

it was the key to helping vertebrates become such a successful group

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35
Q

fulcrum

A

joint, between load and where force is

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36
Q

load arm

A

distance between load and fulcrum

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37
Q

force arm

A

distance between force and fulcrum

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38
Q

incisors

A

teeth at the front of the mouth

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39
Q

canines

A

specialized teeth for piercing prey bodies

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40
Q

premolars

A

teeth in back for crushing and shredding tougher foods

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41
Q

molars

A

teeth in way back for crushing and shredding tougher foods

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42
Q

teeth

A

is where digestion begins, human adults have 32

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43
Q

adaptive radiation

A

diversification of one species into many, live in different habitats

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44
Q

pathogens

A

harmful organisms and viruses that can cause disease

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45
Q

innate defenses

A

nonspecific, inherited mechanism that is the first line of defense against pathogens (ex. skin)
fast, some present all the time

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46
Q

adaptive defenses

A

aimed at specific pathogens
activated by innate immune system
can make antibodies
slow, but long lasting (in vertebrates)

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47
Q

immunity

A

when an organism has enough defenses to avoid biological invasion by a pathogen

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48
Q

toll like receptors

A

participate in innate defense responses
found in many animals
pathogen associated molecular patters (PAMPs) bind here

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49
Q

white blood cells (leukocytes)

A

specialized for immune system functions

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50
Q

phagocytes

A

large cells that ingest pathogens by phagocytosis

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51
Q

lymphocytes

A

adaptive and innate immunity, include T and B cells

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52
Q

neutrophils

A

stimulate inflammation, kill invading cells

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53
Q

mast cells

A

release histamines, increase blood flow to would area

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54
Q

monocytes

A

develop into macrophages and dendritic cells

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55
Q

macrophages

A

antigen presentation, release cytokines that recruit other cells to wound site

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56
Q

dendritic cells

A

present antigens to T cells

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57
Q

B lymphocytes

A

differentiate to form antibody, producing cells and memory cells

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58
Q

T lymphocytes

A

kill pathogen infected cells, regulate the activities of other white blood cells

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59
Q

natural killer cells

A

attack and lyse virus infected or cancerous body cells

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60
Q

lymphoid tissues

A

thymus, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes

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61
Q

blood plasma

A

solution with ions, small mold solutes, and soluble proteins (RBCs, WBCs, platelets)

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62
Q

lymph

A

fluid derived from blood and other tissues (no RBCs)
in intercellular spaces
flows through lymph nodes where it is checked for pathogens and the lymphatic system can respond

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63
Q

innate defenses

A

mucus, lysozyme (cuts bonds in the cell walls of bacteria), defenses (kill/inhibit bacterial growth), other harsh conditions (stomach acid)

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64
Q

2nd immune defense activation steps

A
  1. A pathogen is recognized by TLR and/or the complement system and is engulfed into the phagocyte by endocytosis
  2. The pathogen is surrounded by membrane in phagosome
  3. The phagosome fuses with a lysosome
  4. Toxic enzymes from the lysosome destroy the pathogen
  5. Microbial debris is released by exocytosis
65
Q

inflammatory response

A

inflammation, mast cells, fever

66
Q

allergic reactions

A

a harmless, non self molecule binds to mast cells and release of histamine inflammation occurs

67
Q

autoimmune diseases

A

immune system can’t tell the difference between self and non self and attacks the body (ex. rheumatoid arthritis)

68
Q

sepsis

A

inflammation from an invading bacterial infection spreads throughout body, dilating blood vessels in body, dropping blood pressure

69
Q

humoral immunity

A

works through the body fluids, does not require cell to cell contact
antibodies, B lymphocytes/ B cells

70
Q

Cell mediated immunity

A

requires cells to contact one another to work
T cell receptors, T lymphocytes/ T cells

71
Q

immunological memory

A

immune system remembers antigens on a particular type of pathogen that it has previously come into contact with

72
Q

antibodies

A

a protein/complex of peptides produced by B lymphocytes that bond to antigens at a specific epitope, which initiates the removal of a foreign substance from the body

73
Q

B cells

A

white blood cells that produce antibodies

74
Q

T cell receptors

A

protein complex on surface of T lymphocytes/ T cells that recognizes fragments of an antigen

75
Q

T cells

A

focus on killing specific types of cells (not general)

76
Q

antigens

A

any (usually foreign) molecule that elicits an immune response (synthesis of antibodies that specifically binds to the antigen)

77
Q

epitopes (or antigenic determinants)

A

sites or specific regions on the antigen that binds receptor molecules of the immune system (T cell receptors/ antibodies), is recognized by immune system

78
Q

cytotoxic T cells

A

workhorse of the cellular immune system,
kill all cells with antigen exposed

79
Q

recognition phase immune response

A

an antigen is inserted into the cell membrane of an antigen presenting cell with a unique antigen protruding from cell membrane

80
Q

activation phase immune response

A

when T helper cell recognizes an antigen on a cell, propagates and releases cytokines that stimulate B and cytotoxic T cells

81
Q

effector phase immune response

A

Humoral- cells of B clones make antibodies, which bind to bacterial components and/or virus infected cells. Bound antibodies attract phagocytes to ingest and destroy bacteria
Cellular- cells of Tc clone bind to cells with antigen exposed and destroy them

82
Q

T helper cell

A

T cell that has receptor protein for specific antigen

83
Q

agglutination

A

binding of multiple antigens and multiple antibodies which allows for antibodies to form large complexes

84
Q

IgG class antibodies

A

about 80% of antibodies; most abundant antibody in primary and secondary immune responses, provides immunity to a fetus

85
Q

IgM class antibodies

A

antigen receptor on a B cell membrane, first class of antibodies released by B cells during primary response

86
Q

IgD class antibodies

A

cell surface receptor of mature B cell, important in B cell activation

87
Q

IgA class antibodies

A

protects mucosal surfaces, prevents attachment of pathogens to epithelial cells

88
Q

IgE class antibodies

A

binds to mast cells and basophils to sensitize them to future binding of antigen, triggers inflammation of histamine that causes inflammation/allergic responses

89
Q

opsonize

A

make a foreign cell more susceptible to phagocytosis

90
Q

monoclonal respones

A

immune response against a single epitope, single clone of B cells

91
Q

polyclonal response

A

immune response against multiple epitopes, multiple clones of B cells

92
Q

antigen presentation

A

fragments on the cell surfaces function as antigens

93
Q

major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

A

codes for cell surface proteins and helps the immune system recognize foreign objects

94
Q

Tregs

A

regulatory T cells, ensure that immune response doesn’t get out of control

95
Q

HIV

A

a retrovirus that attacks the bodys immune system

96
Q

AIDS

A

a disease that results from HIV infection, once its progressed to a certain point

97
Q

vaccine

A

either an inactive form of a pathogen or the antigenic component of the pathogen. generates memory cells without making person sick

98
Q

endocrine cells

A

cells that secrete hormones into blood

99
Q

target cell

A

cell that receives a chemical signal from a nerve or endocrine cell

100
Q

paracrines

A

secreted by one cell and effects functions of neighboring cells

101
Q

autocrines

A

secreted by a cell into surrounding tissue fluids, then bind to same sell (self)

102
Q

pheremones

A

chemical signaling molecules that an animal releases into the environment, effects other individuals of their spaces

103
Q

endocrine glands

A

glands without ducts, have endocrine cells that release hormones into the blood

104
Q

exocrine glands

A

glands with ducts, secretions released from ducts, no signaling function

105
Q

hormone

A

chemical released into blood by endocrine cells and helps to regulate the function of other cells

106
Q

peptide hormones

A

chains of amino acids, water soluble

107
Q

steroid hormones

A

from cholesterols, not water soluble

108
Q

amine hormones

A

modified amino acids, small, solubility depends- some water soluble, some not

109
Q

neurosecretory (neuroendocrine) cells

A

look like neurons, are excitable cells that propagate action potentials

110
Q

non-neural endocrine cells

A

cells that are not excitable

111
Q

intracellular receptors

A

receptor proteins that bind its ligand inside the cell

112
Q

pituitary gland

A

at the base of the human brain, connected to the hypothalamus, 2 functional links with the brain

113
Q

hypothalamus

A

part of the brain below the thalamus, helps with learning,, memory, spatial orientation, control of hormones

114
Q

anterior pituitary gland

A

endocrine gland

115
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A

extension of brain

116
Q

axis

A

a system in which an endocrine cell acts on each other in a sequence

117
Q

HPA axis

A

hypothalamus pituitary gland-adrenal cortex- controls secretion of adrenal cortex hormones, long-term stress

118
Q

cortisol

A

primary glucocorticoid in mammals

119
Q

releasing hormone

A

hormone secreted by neuroendocrine cells in hypothalamus, travels to anterior pituitary gland

120
Q

androgens

A

hormones that lead to formation of penis and scrotum (masculinizing hormones

121
Q

testosterone

A

androgen and main hormone produced by the testes

122
Q

estrogens

A

hormones that will lead to the formation of a vagina (feminizing hormone)

123
Q

sex

A

mechanism by which genes of 2 individuals are combined to produce offspring

124
Q

sexual reproduction

A

each parent produces specialized reproductive cells (gametes)

125
Q

gametes

A

reproductive cells, product of mitosis (egg, sperm)

126
Q

somatic cells

A

other cells in body, not gametes or germ cells

127
Q

offspring

A

next generation of organism

128
Q

spawning

A

external fertilization method- release of sperm and eggs into external environment

129
Q

asexual reproduction

A

offspring from one parent, often by mitosis. Offspring are genetically identical to parent

130
Q

budding

A

mitotically produced outgrowth of parent

131
Q

fission

A

parent splits in 2 or more pieces to make new individuals

132
Q

parthenogenesis

A

development of offspring from unfertilized egg

133
Q

regeneration

A

complete organism can be made from small fragments of the animals body

134
Q

advantages of asexual reproduction

A

keeps successful genotypes when in a stable environment

135
Q

disadvantages of asexual reproduction

A

lack of genetic diversity

136
Q

Primary reproductive (sex) organs

A

gonads- produce gametes (ovaries and testes)

137
Q

Accessory reproductive (sex) organs

A

Not gonads- uterus, glands for eggs shells, penis, vas deferens

138
Q

Secondary sexual characteristics

A

Properties of nonreproductive organs and tissues that are unique in each sex- ability to nurse, menstrual cycle, facial and chest hair, deeper voices.

139
Q

gametogenesis

A

process that produces gametes

140
Q

spermatogenesis

A

4 sperm produced

141
Q

oogenesis

A

1 ovum produced

142
Q

germs cells

A

diploid cells that can use meiosis to make gametes

143
Q

polar bodies

A

small cells produced by unequal division of cytoplasm in cell division- female meiosis

144
Q

Sertoli cells

A

assist sperm production

145
Q

interstitial cells (leading cells)

A

secrete testosterone through testes into blood

146
Q

sperm head

A

nucleus and acrosome- for DNA and enzymes

147
Q

sperm neck

A

centriole- for spindle formation

148
Q

sperm midpiece

A

lots of mitochondria for ATP to move sperm

149
Q

sperm tail

A

microtubules for movement

150
Q

ovarian follicle

A

developing ovum and support cells that support the ovum

151
Q

sequential hermaphrodites

A

animal can be male at one time, female at another (can make both eggs and sperm, just not at same time)

152
Q

hermaphrodites

A

animals that can make both sperm and ova at the same time

153
Q

progesterone

A

steroid sex hormone that maintains pregnancy and is secreted by corpus luteum and placenta

154
Q

spontaneous ovulation

A

timing of ovulation and LH surge is controlled by endogenous hormonal cycles

155
Q

induced ovulation

A

triggered by copulation (sexual intercourse)

156
Q

estrous cycles

A

cycles of behavior where they express readiness to mate (instead of menstrual cycle)

157
Q

placenta

A

structure where large arrays of maternal and embryonic blood essels are closely put together

158
Q

oxytocin

A

hormone made in hypothalamus, released into posterior pituitary
stimulates contraction of uterus during birth and flow of mile from mammary glands.

Diversity of Form and Function (2 decks)

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