Exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
cochlea
A
coiled, fluid filled tube where sound energy is transduced to electric signals
2
Q
skeletal systems
A
mostly what animals use for a rigid support structure to attach muscles to and move
3
Q
how many bones do humans have
A
over 200
4
Q
hydrostatic skeleton
A
use a cavity filled with water to support organism
ex. jellyfish
5
Q
exoskeleton
A
rigid external envelope that supports and protects the tissues of an organism
ex. insects (grasshoppers)
6
Q
endoskeleton
A
rigid internal structure that provides support and locomotion to an organism
ex. humans, dogs
7
Q
cuticle
A
type of exoskeleton that covers the outer surface of an arthropod
8
Q
chiton
A
nitrogen containing polysaccharide that makes up an exoskeleton
9
Q
joints
A
how bones are attached to each other
10
Q
cartilage cells
A
metric of tough and rubbery mix of polysaccharides and protein (collagen
11
Q
bone
A
has collagen fibers, but is harder thanks to calcium phosphate.
also is a reservoir for calcium
12
Q
osteoblasts
A
cells that put new matrix material on bone surfaces
13
Q
osteocytes
A
formerly osteoblasts, now inside the cavities in bone
14
Q
osteoclasts
A
cells that break down old bone and release calcium from bone into the extracellular fluid
15
Q
membranous bone
A
forms on a scaffold of connective tissue membrane
16
Q
cartilage bone
A
first forms a cartilage structure that looks like a future, mature bone, then hardens into an actual bone
17
Q
epiphyseal plates
A
places where cartilage forms between ossification centers
18
Q
compact bone
A
solid and hard
19
Q
cancellous bone
A
rigid but has internal cavities and looks spongey
20
Q
compact bone
A
the hard white outer region
21
Q
marrow
A
living tissue that stores red blood cells in cavities
22
Q
spongy bone
A
honeycombed with many small cavities inside compact bone
23
Q
joint
A
when two or more bones come together
24
Q
example of ball and socket joint
A
hip
25
example of pivot joint
neck- back and forth movement
26
example of saddle joint
bottom of thumb
27
example of ellipsoid joint
wrist
28
example of hinge joint
knee
29
example of plane joint
ankle- back and fourth movement
30
tendons
straps of connective tissue that connect muscles to bones
31
ligaments
attach bone to bone
32
tendons
attach muscle to bone
33
antagonistic pairs
flexor and extensor muscles work in these to operate the joint
34
why was the evolution of jaws so important
it was the key to helping vertebrates become such a successful group
35
fulcrum
joint, between load and where force is
36
load arm
distance between load and fulcrum
37
force arm
distance between force and fulcrum
38
incisors
teeth at the front of the mouth
39
canines
specialized teeth for piercing prey bodies
40
premolars
teeth in back for crushing and shredding tougher foods
41
molars
teeth in way back for crushing and shredding tougher foods
42
teeth
is where digestion begins, human adults have 32
43
adaptive radiation
diversification of one species into many, live in different habitats
44
pathogens
harmful organisms and viruses that can cause disease
45
innate defenses
nonspecific, inherited mechanism that is the first line of defense against pathogens (ex. skin)
fast, some present all the time
46
adaptive defenses
aimed at specific pathogens
activated by innate immune system
can make antibodies
slow, but long lasting (in vertebrates)
47
immunity
when an organism has enough defenses to avoid biological invasion by a pathogen
48
toll like receptors
participate in innate defense responses
found in many animals
pathogen associated molecular patters (PAMPs) bind here
49
white blood cells (leukocytes)
specialized for immune system functions
50
phagocytes
large cells that ingest pathogens by phagocytosis
51
lymphocytes
adaptive and innate immunity, include T and B cells
52
neutrophils
stimulate inflammation, kill invading cells
53
mast cells
release histamines, increase blood flow to would area
54
monocytes
develop into macrophages and dendritic cells
55
macrophages
antigen presentation, release cytokines that recruit other cells to wound site
56
dendritic cells
present antigens to T cells
57
B lymphocytes
differentiate to form antibody, producing cells and memory cells
58
T lymphocytes
kill pathogen infected cells, regulate the activities of other white blood cells
59
natural killer cells
attack and lyse virus infected or cancerous body cells
60
lymphoid tissues
thymus, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes
61
blood plasma
solution with ions, small mold solutes, and soluble proteins (RBCs, WBCs, platelets)
62
lymph
fluid derived from blood and other tissues (no RBCs)
in intercellular spaces
flows through lymph nodes where it is checked for pathogens and the lymphatic system can respond
63
innate defenses
mucus, lysozyme (cuts bonds in the cell walls of bacteria), defenses (kill/inhibit bacterial growth), other harsh conditions (stomach acid)
64
2nd immune defense activation steps
1. A pathogen is recognized by TLR and/or the complement system and is engulfed into the phagocyte by endocytosis
2. The pathogen is surrounded by membrane in phagosome
3. The phagosome fuses with a lysosome
4. Toxic enzymes from the lysosome destroy the pathogen
5. Microbial debris is released by exocytosis
65
inflammatory response
inflammation, mast cells, fever
66
allergic reactions
a harmless, non self molecule binds to mast cells and release of histamine inflammation occurs
67
autoimmune diseases
immune system can't tell the difference between self and non self and attacks the body (ex. rheumatoid arthritis)
68
sepsis
inflammation from an invading bacterial infection spreads throughout body, dilating blood vessels in body, dropping blood pressure
69
humoral immunity
works through the body fluids, does not require cell to cell contact
antibodies, B lymphocytes/ B cells
70
Cell mediated immunity
requires cells to contact one another to work
T cell receptors, T lymphocytes/ T cells
71
immunological memory
immune system remembers antigens on a particular type of pathogen that it has previously come into contact with
72
antibodies
a protein/complex of peptides produced by B lymphocytes that bond to antigens at a specific epitope, which initiates the removal of a foreign substance from the body
73
B cells
white blood cells that produce antibodies
74
T cell receptors
protein complex on surface of T lymphocytes/ T cells that recognizes fragments of an antigen
75
T cells
focus on killing specific types of cells (not general)
76
antigens
any (usually foreign) molecule that elicits an immune response (synthesis of antibodies that specifically binds to the antigen)
77
epitopes (or antigenic determinants)
sites or specific regions on the antigen that binds receptor molecules of the immune system (T cell receptors/ antibodies), is recognized by immune system
78
cytotoxic T cells
workhorse of the cellular immune system,
kill all cells with antigen exposed
79
recognition phase immune response
an antigen is inserted into the cell membrane of an antigen presenting cell with a unique antigen protruding from cell membrane
80
activation phase immune response
when T helper cell recognizes an antigen on a cell, propagates and releases cytokines that stimulate B and cytotoxic T cells
81
effector phase immune response
Humoral- cells of B clones make antibodies, which bind to bacterial components and/or virus infected cells. Bound antibodies attract phagocytes to ingest and destroy bacteria
Cellular- cells of Tc clone bind to cells with antigen exposed and destroy them
82
T helper cell
T cell that has receptor protein for specific antigen
83
agglutination
binding of multiple antigens and multiple antibodies which allows for antibodies to form large complexes
84
IgG class antibodies
about 80% of antibodies; most abundant antibody in primary and secondary immune responses, provides immunity to a fetus
85
IgM class antibodies
antigen receptor on a B cell membrane, first class of antibodies released by B cells during primary response
86
IgD class antibodies
cell surface receptor of mature B cell, important in B cell activation
87
IgA class antibodies
protects mucosal surfaces, prevents attachment of pathogens to epithelial cells
88
IgE class antibodies
binds to mast cells and basophils to sensitize them to future binding of antigen, triggers inflammation of histamine that causes inflammation/allergic responses
89
opsonize
make a foreign cell more susceptible to phagocytosis
90
monoclonal respones
immune response against a single epitope, single clone of B cells
91
polyclonal response
immune response against multiple epitopes, multiple clones of B cells
92
antigen presentation
fragments on the cell surfaces function as antigens
93
major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
codes for cell surface proteins and helps the immune system recognize foreign objects
94
Tregs
regulatory T cells, ensure that immune response doesn't get out of control
95
HIV
a retrovirus that attacks the bodys immune system
96
AIDS
a disease that results from HIV infection, once its progressed to a certain point
97
vaccine
either an inactive form of a pathogen or the antigenic component of the pathogen. generates memory cells without making person sick
98
endocrine cells
cells that secrete hormones into blood
99
target cell
cell that receives a chemical signal from a nerve or endocrine cell
100
paracrines
secreted by one cell and effects functions of neighboring cells
101
autocrines
secreted by a cell into surrounding tissue fluids, then bind to same sell (self)
102
pheremones
chemical signaling molecules that an animal releases into the environment, effects other individuals of their spaces
103
endocrine glands
glands without ducts, have endocrine cells that release hormones into the blood
104
exocrine glands
glands with ducts, secretions released from ducts, no signaling function
105
hormone
chemical released into blood by endocrine cells and helps to regulate the function of other cells
106
peptide hormones
chains of amino acids, water soluble
107
steroid hormones
from cholesterols, not water soluble
108
amine hormones
modified amino acids, small, solubility depends- some water soluble, some not
109
neurosecretory (neuroendocrine) cells
look like neurons, are excitable cells that propagate action potentials
110
non-neural endocrine cells
cells that are not excitable
111
intracellular receptors
receptor proteins that bind its ligand inside the cell
112
pituitary gland
at the base of the human brain, connected to the hypothalamus, 2 functional links with the brain
113
hypothalamus
part of the brain below the thalamus, helps with learning,, memory, spatial orientation, control of hormones
114
anterior pituitary gland
endocrine gland
115
posterior pituitary gland
extension of brain
116
axis
a system in which an endocrine cell acts on each other in a sequence
117
HPA axis
hypothalamus pituitary gland-adrenal cortex- controls secretion of adrenal cortex hormones, long-term stress
118
cortisol
primary glucocorticoid in mammals
119
releasing hormone
hormone secreted by neuroendocrine cells in hypothalamus, travels to anterior pituitary gland
120
androgens
hormones that lead to formation of penis and scrotum (masculinizing hormones
121
testosterone
androgen and main hormone produced by the testes
122
estrogens
hormones that will lead to the formation of a vagina (feminizing hormone)
123
sex
mechanism by which genes of 2 individuals are combined to produce offspring
124
sexual reproduction
each parent produces specialized reproductive cells (gametes)
125
gametes
reproductive cells, product of mitosis (egg, sperm)
126
somatic cells
other cells in body, not gametes or germ cells
127
offspring
next generation of organism
128
spawning
external fertilization method- release of sperm and eggs into external environment
129
asexual reproduction
offspring from one parent, often by mitosis. Offspring are genetically identical to parent
130
budding
mitotically produced outgrowth of parent
131
fission
parent splits in 2 or more pieces to make new individuals
132
parthenogenesis
development of offspring from unfertilized egg
133
regeneration
complete organism can be made from small fragments of the animals body
134
advantages of asexual reproduction
keeps successful genotypes when in a stable environment
135
disadvantages of asexual reproduction
lack of genetic diversity
136
Primary reproductive (sex) organs
gonads- produce gametes (ovaries and testes)
137
Accessory reproductive (sex) organs
Not gonads- uterus, glands for eggs shells, penis, vas deferens
138
Secondary sexual characteristics
Properties of nonreproductive organs and tissues that are unique in each sex- ability to nurse, menstrual cycle, facial and chest hair, deeper voices.
139
gametogenesis
process that produces gametes
140
spermatogenesis
4 sperm produced
141
oogenesis
1 ovum produced
142
germs cells
diploid cells that can use meiosis to make gametes
143
polar bodies
small cells produced by unequal division of cytoplasm in cell division- female meiosis
144
Sertoli cells
assist sperm production
145
interstitial cells (leading cells)
secrete testosterone through testes into blood
146
sperm head
nucleus and acrosome- for DNA and enzymes
147
sperm neck
centriole- for spindle formation
148
sperm midpiece
lots of mitochondria for ATP to move sperm
149
sperm tail
microtubules for movement
150
ovarian follicle
developing ovum and support cells that support the ovum
151
sequential hermaphrodites
animal can be male at one time, female at another (can make both eggs and sperm, just not at same time)
152
hermaphrodites
animals that can make both sperm and ova at the same time
153
progesterone
steroid sex hormone that maintains pregnancy and is secreted by corpus luteum and placenta
154
spontaneous ovulation
timing of ovulation and LH surge is controlled by endogenous hormonal cycles
155
induced ovulation
triggered by copulation (sexual intercourse)
156
estrous cycles
cycles of behavior where they express readiness to mate (instead of menstrual cycle)
157
placenta
structure where large arrays of maternal and embryonic blood essels are closely put together
158
oxytocin
hormone made in hypothalamus, released into posterior pituitary
stimulates contraction of uterus during birth and flow of mile from mammary glands.
