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SAP > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

4 structures of urinary system

A

Kidney x 2

Ureter x 2

Urinary bladder x 1

Urethra

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2
Q

kidney layers

A

Renal fascia – dense irregular connective tissue

Fat capsule/adipose capsule – helps ancho kidney in place and acts as a cushion

Renal capsule

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3
Q

Nephroptosis

A

inferior displacement of the kidney, drops down from where it should be sitting. Primary reason it occurs is due to a person having less fat in their body

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4
Q

regions of the kidney

A

Outer layer – renal cortex

Inner layer – renal medulla

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5
Q

structures of the kidney

A

Renal pyramids

Renal papilla

Renal columns

Minor calyx

Major calyx

Renal pelvis

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6
Q

nephrons

A

Renal corpuscle

Renal tubules

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7
Q

renal corpuscle

A

Glomerulus – cluster of capillaries

Bowman’s capsule – doubled wall membrane that surrounds glomerulus

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8
Q

renal tubules

A

Proximal convoluted tubule

Loop of Henle

Distal convoluted tubule

Collecting duct

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9
Q

proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

A

Arises from bowman’s capsule

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Microvilli facing lumen

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10
Q

Loop of Henle

A

Sits mostly in medulla

Descending = water permeable – simple epithelia

Ascending = water impermeable – lots of active transport

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11
Q

distal convoluted tubule

A

Begins as tubule enters cortex

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Principal and intercalated cells

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12
Q

collecting duct

A

Several nephrons empty into a single collecting duct

Extend from renal cortex to renal medulla

Principal and intercalated cells

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13
Q

2 different types of nephrons

A

Cortical nephron

Location: mainly in renal cortex
Capillaries: peritubular capillaries
Function: primarily involved in producing dilute urine

Juxtamedullary nephron

Location: loop of Henle dips a lot deeper in the renal medulla
Capillaries: peritubular capillaries, vasa recta capillaries
Function: primarily produce concentrated urine

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14
Q

Layers of glomerular filtration membrane

A

Fenestrated endothelium

Basement membrane

Podocyte

Filtration slits

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15
Q

pathway of blood through the kidney

A

Renal artery -> interlobar artery -> arcuate artery -> cortical radiate artery -> afferent arteriole -> glomerulus -> efferent arteriole -> vasa recta or peritubular capillaries -> cortical radiate vein -> arcuate vein -> interlobar vein -> renal vein

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16
Q

major functions of the urinary system

A

Routine – production and excretion of urine

Protective – eliminate toxins, alter blood pressure

Balancing – regulate pH and electrolytes

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17
Q

what do kidneys filter

A

The kidneys filter blood

The waste products filtered out of the blood are excreted as urine

If no blood is filtered, no urine is produced

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18
Q

urine formation

A

Glomerular filtration

Tubular reabsorption

Tubular secretion

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19
Q

tubular reabsorption

A

The process of reclaiming water and solutes from the filtrate and returning them to the blood

Filtrate -> blood

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20
Q

tubular secretion

A

The process of secreting excess or waste substances from the blood into filtrate in the tubules

Blood -> filtrate

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21
Q

GBHP
CHP
BCOP

A

Glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure (GBHP) = 55mHg – blood pressure in glomerular capillaries. Promotes filtration

Capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP) = 15 mmHg – hydrostatic pressure against the filtration membrane from fluid in capsular space. Opposes filtration

Blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP) = 30 mmHg – induced by the presence of proteins (I.e., albumin) in blood plasma which draw water into capillaries. Opposes filtration

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22
Q

Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)

A

= GBHP – CHP – BCOP

= 55 mmHg – 15 mmHg – 30 mmHg

= 10 mmHg

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23
Q

if GFR is to high
if GFR is to low

A

If GFR is too high = decreased H20 and solute reabsorption

Increase urine output, dehydration, electrolyte depletion

If GFR is too low = increase H20 and solute reabsorption

Reabsorb wastes that should be eliminated in urine

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24
Q

myogenic mechanism

A

The mechanism by which arteries and arterioles react to an increase or decrease in blood pressure to keep the blood flow within the blood vessel constant

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25
Q

sympathetic stimulation

A

The kidneys are supplied by sympathetic fibers that release norepinephrine

Norepinephrine causes vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole

With increase sympathetic stimulation the afferent arteriole constricts

Constriction of the afferent arteriole also acts to redirect blood to other tissue

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26
Q

hormones affecting kidney function

A

Angiotensin II

Aldosterone

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Parathyroid hormone

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27
Q

angiotensin II

A

Active hormone in renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, stimulated by low blood pressure

Angiotensin II acts in a variety of ways

Systemic vasoconstriction

Binds to hypothalamus to stimulate thirst

Acts on adrenal cortex to release aldosterone

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28
Q

aldosterone

A

Released from adrenal cortex in response to angiotensin II, ACTH and high blood potassium concentration

Stimulates principal cells in the collecting ducts to reabsorb more Na+ and Cl- and secrete more K+

The consequence of reabsorbing more Na+ and Cl- is that more water is reabsorbed

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29
Q

antidiuretic hormone

A

Vasopressin

Released from posterior pituitary gland in response to increased blood osmolarity

Increased permeability of principals cells in DCT and collecting duct to water

Stimulates insertion of aquaporins into membrane

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30
Q

atrial natriuretic peptide

A

Released in response to an increase in blood volume

Inhibits reabsorption of Na+ and water

Suppresses secretion of aldosterone and ADH

Increases Na+ secretion and urine output

31
Q

parathyroid hormone

A

Released from the parathyroid gland in response to low blood Ca+ levels

Stimulates opening of calcium channels in membranes of cells in early DCT

Results in increased calcium reabsorption

32
Q

aging and urinary system

A

Kidneys shrink in size, and there is a decrease in the number of functioning glomeruli

Muscles in bladder become weaker, stretch receptors become less sensitive

Sensation of thirst reduced

33
Q

ureter

A

Mucosal layer

Smooth muscle

Fibrous connective tissue

34
Q

bladder - hollow, extendable and muscular organ

A

Mucosal layer

Smooth muscle, longitudinal, circular and longitudinal. Internal sphincter and external sphincter

Fibrous connective tissue – peritoneum, holds bladder in place

35
Q

urethra

A

Mucosal layer – protects tissue

Muscularis layer – propels urine

36
Q

micturition reflex

A

Afferent impulses from stretch receptors to pons

Pontine micturition center activated

Parasympathetic efferents stimulate detrusor muscle, opening internal urethral sphincter

Sympathetic efferents inhibited

Somatic efferents inhibited; external; urethral sphincter relaxes

37
Q

urine

A

1-2 liters produced per day

Affected by fluid intake, blood pressure, osmolarity, diet, body temperature, diuretics, mental state and general health

95% water, 5% solutes

Solutes include electrolytes, wastes derived from cellular metabolism, and exogenous substances such as drugs

Urine is typically protein free

38
Q

urinalysis

A

An analysis of the volume and physical, chemical and microscopic properties of urine

If disease alters metabolism or kidney function, traces of substances not normally present may appear in urine

Protein

Glucose

Red blood cells

Microbes

39
Q

scrotum

A

Loose bag of skin located outside the abdominal cavity

Divided into two sacs via scrotal septum

Each sac contains one teste

2 – 3 degrees Celsius lower than core body temperature

Temperature is regulated by

Dartos muscle – smooth muscle

Cremaster muscle - skeletal muscle

Pampiniform plexus – network of small veins

40
Q

Sperm survival is 2-3 degrees Celsius lower than core body temperature

A

Scrotum (and testes) located outside of the pelvic cacity

Dartos and cremaster contract when its cold

Cremaster muscle moves testes closer to the body

Dartos muscle wrinkles scrotal skin

Exposure to warm these reverses these actions

Pampiniform plexus – heat exchange vessels

41
Q

testes

A

Paired oval glands located in the scrotum

Location of spermatogenesis -> sperm production

Produce male sex hormones (e.g., testosterone)

Ducts of testis

Seminiferous tubules -> site of sperm production

Epididymis -> site of sperm maturation

Ductus deferens -> carry sperm from epididymis to the ejaculatory duct

42
Q

spermatogenesis

A

Begins at puberty

50-200 million sperm produced per day

Occurs in the seminiferous tubules

Lined with sperm-forming cells called spermatogenic cells

Sertoli cells located between developing sperm -> nurture and control the developing sperm

Leydig cells located in the spaces between the tubules -> synthesis and secrete testosterone

43
Q

sperm

A

Produced in seminiferous tubules and matures in the epididymis

Adaptations for fertilization

Elongated tail (flagellum) for movement

Body contains mitochondria for energy

The head is covered in an acrosomal cap that contains enzymes to assist with the penetration of the egg

Genetic material contained within the head

44
Q

ductus of the male reproductive system

A

Epididymis -> site of sperm maturation

Ductus deferens -> carry sperm from epididymis to the ejaculatory duct

Ejaculatory ducts -> carry sperm from ductus deferens to into the urethra

Urethra (three parts) -> carry sperm from ejaculatory ducts to outside (terminal duct)

45
Q

Sperm plus the secretions provided by the accessory sex glands

A

The volume of typical ejaculation is 2.5 - 5 mL

50-150 million sperm per milliliter

Accessory sex glands secrete the liquid portion

Seminal vesicles

Prostate

Bulbourethral glands

46
Q

seminal vesicle (paired)

A

Alkaline -> combat acidic environment in vagina

Fructose -> energy source

Clotting protein -> coagulation after ejaculation

47
Q

prostate

A

Citric acid -> energy source

Zinc -> sperm function and motility

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) -> liquefy semen in the ejaculate

48
Q

bulbourethral gland

A

Alkaline mucus (pre-ejaculate) -> neutralizes urethra, lubricates urethra and end of penis

49
Q

passageway for the ejaculation of semen and excretion of urine

A

Root of the penis is the attached portion (proximal)

Body of the penis (erectile tissue) - corpus cavernosa -> dorsal, corpus spongiosum penis -> surrounds urethra

Glands penis – distal end of corpus spongiosum, opening of urethra (external urethral orifice)

50
Q

ovaries

A

Produce oocytes that develop into a mature ova (egg)

4-5 million primordial oocytes in utero
0.5 million by puberty
500 used

Produce hormones

Oestrogen -> stimulate the growth of the egg follicle
Progestogen -> thickening the endometrial lining
Inhibin -> inhibit the secretion of FSH
Relaxin -> relaxes the ligaments in the pelvis, softens and widens the cervix

51
Q

oogenesis

A

Formation of gametes (oocytes) in the ovaries

52
Q

uterine tubes

A

Extend laterally from the uterus

Funnel-shaped at the ovarian end

Smooth muscle -> peristalsis

Ciliated simple columnar cells

Site of fertilization

53
Q

fimbriae

A

Finger-link projections at the end of the uterine tubes

Movements produce local currents

Sweep ovulated oocyte into tubes

54
Q

uterus

A

Site of implantation of fertilized ovum

Hollow, thic walled, muscular organ

Body -> major portion

Uterine cavity -> interior of the body

Fundus -> rounded superior portion

Cervix -> narrow neck; projects and opens into vagina

55
Q

uterine wall

A

Perimetrium -> outer layer

Myometrium -> middle layer
Smooth muscle
Contracts during childbirth

Endometrium -> inner layer
Stratum functionalis (shed during menstruation)
Stratum basalis (permanent layer and gives rise to new stratum functionalis)

56
Q

endometriosis

A

Growth of endometrial-like tissue outside the uterine cavity

Affects approximately 1 in 10 women of reproductive age

Symptoms – pain, heavy bleeding, bladder and bowel problems, bloating, infertility

Treatment – pain management, hormonal contraception, surgery

57
Q

vagina

A

Thin-walled tube 8-10cm in length

Located between bladder and rectum

PH 3.8 - 4.2 (inhibits bacteria growth)

58
Q

two cycles of the female reproductive cycle

A

Ovarian cycle -> events that occur in the ovaries (oogenesis)

The uterine cycle -> prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized ovum

59
Q

hormones released in female reproductive cycle

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release of FSH and LH

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) -> follicular growth

Luteinizing hormone (LH) -> ovulation

Oestrogen -> growth of endometrium

Progestogen -> growth and maintenance of the endometrium

60
Q

ovarian cycle phases

A

Days 1 – 14: follicular phase

FSH stimulates growth of follicles
Mature follicle releases oestrogen

Day 14: ovulation (LH)

Mature follicle ruptures
Oocytes released from the ovary

Day 14 – 28: luteal phase

Corpus luteum secreting progesterone
Maintains endometrium

61
Q

uterine cycle

A

Days 1 – 5: menses

Decreased progesterone
Stratum functionalis shed (bleeding)

Days 5 – 14: proliferative

Increased oestrogen
Building of stratum functionalis

Day 14 – 28: secretory

Increased progesterone (corpus luteum)
Increased blood flow to the endometrium
Thickens and maintains endometrium

62
Q

fertilisation and implantation

A

Involves the union of sperm and egg

Sperm swim through the female cervix and uterine cavity to the fallopian tubes

Most sperm die, never reaching the oocyte

Fertilization usually occurs in a uterine tube

Implantation occurs days later in the uterus

63
Q

sperm entry (fertilisation)

A

Capacitation – biochemical changes which occur post ejaculation to improve sperm motility

Acrosome reaction – the release of hydrolytic enzymes which softens the zone pellucida (jelly coat)

Cortical reaction – hardening of the jelly coat post fertilization to prevent potential polyspermy

64
Q

preventing menstruation

A

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) secreted by the blastocyst and placenta

HCG stops the corpus luteum from degrading

Corpus luteum continues to produce oestrogen and progesterone

Oestrogen and progesterone maintain the endometrium

Placenta takes over the production ~8 weeks until birth

65
Q

placenta

A

Temporary organ of pregnancy

Meeting point foetal circulation and maternal circulation

Facilitates the exchange of materials between the mother and the foetus

66
Q

two parts of placenta

A

Foetal portion

Maternal portion

67
Q

functions of placenta

A

Exchange of gases, nutrients and waste

Protective barrier from most microorganisms

Storage of nutrients

Produces hormones needed to sustain the pregnancy

68
Q

Changes in cardiovascular system during pregancy

A

Increased cardiac output

Increased blood volume

Vasodilation

69
Q

changes in urinary system during pregnancy

A

Increased GFR

Increased urine output

Increased risk of urinary tract infections

70
Q

changes in GI system during pregnancy

A

Increased appetite

Pressure on stomach may cause heartburn

Decreased GI motility can cause constipation

Nausea

71
Q

changes in respiratory system during pregnancy

A

Increased tidal volume

Increased O2 consumption

Diaphragm displaced upwards – decreased space for lung expansion

72
Q

changes in skin during pregnancy

A

Increased pigmentation around eyes and cheeks

Stretchmarks on breasts and abdomen

73
Q

changes in reproductive system during pregnancy

A

Increased blood flow to vagina and vulva

Changes to vaginal microbiota

74
Q

stages of labour and delivery

A

Stage of dilation (6 – 12 hours) - onset of labor to the complete dilation of the cervix (10cm) the cervix relaxes, causing it to dilate and thin out

Stage of expulsion (10 min- several hours) - from complete cervical dilation to delivery of the baby. Uterine contractions increase in strength and the infant is delivered

Placental stage (5 – 3- min) - after delivery until the placenta or “afterbirth” is expelled by powerful uterine. The contractions also constrict blood vessels that were torn during delivery, thereby reducing the likelihood of hemorrhage. The placenta is expelled

SAP (3 decks)

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