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SAP > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Homeostasis

A

The body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

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2
Q

Positive and Negative feedback loop

A

negative - A change is sensed and mechanisms to reverse the change are activated – dynamic equilibrium

Positive - Change leads to greater change in the same direction – self-amplifying cycle

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3
Q

endocrine system

A

Collection of endocrine glands scattered throughout the body

Endocrine glands secrete hormones into bloodstream

Hormones travel through the bloodstream to bind to receptors on target cells

When a hormone binds to target cells receptor, it causes the cell to respond in a specific way

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4
Q

effects hormones have on target cells

A

Changes in cell membrane permeability and/or membrane potential

Synthesis of proteins or regulatory molecules

Enzyme activation or deactivation

Regulation of secretory activity

Stimulation of mitosis (cell division)

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5
Q

functions of endocrine system

A

Maintain homeostasis

Storage and utilization of energy (carbohydrates, proteins and fats)

Regulation of growth and reproduction

Control body responses to external stimuli (particularly stress)

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6
Q

steroid hormones

A

Synthesis – from cholesterol

Storage – produced as needed

Solubility – lipid soluble

Cell membrane permeability – can pass through the cell membrane (simple diffusion)

Location of receptors – inside the cell

Examples – oestrogen, testosterone

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7
Q

amino acid-based hormones

A

Synthesis – from amino acids

Storage – stored in vesicles

Solubility – water soluble

Cell membrane permeability – cannot pass through the cell membrane

Location of receptors – on the cell membrane

Examples – Antidiuretic hormone, Prolactin

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8
Q

mechanism of steroid hormone actions

A
  1. Diffuse through the plasma membrane
  2. Binds with receptor in cell cytoplasm
  3. Steroid-receptor complex moves inside the nucleus
  4. Induces gene expression and protein synthesis
  5. New protein alters cell function
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9
Q

mechanism of amino acid-based hormones

A
  1. Hormone binds with receptor on plasma membrane
  2. Hormone-receptor complex generates second messenger inside the cell cytoplasm
  3. Second messenger triggers intracellular chemical to amplify signal (cascade)
  4. Results in desired cell response
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10
Q

hypothalamus and pituitary gland

A

Hypothalamus: master endocrine gland

Hypothalamus connects to the pituitary gland via the pituitary gland (infundibulum)

Hypothalamus links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

Most hormone secretion by the pituitary gland is controlled by hormonal or electrical signals from the hypothalamus

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11
Q

key endocrine glands

A 
Anterior pituitary gland 
Posterior pituitary gland 
Pineal gland 
Thyroid gland 
Parathyroid gland 
Adrenal cortex 
Adrenal medulla 
Pancreas 
Ovaries 
Testes
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12
Q

anterior pituitary gland hormones

A

Thyroid stimulating hormone

Growth hormone

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Follicle stimulating hormone

Luteinizing hormone

Prolactin

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13
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone

A

release from anterior pituitary

Effect: stimulates the cells of the thyroid gland leading to increase production of thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)

Regulation: Hormonal – produced and released in response to release of thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus

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14
Q

growth hormone

A

release from anterior pituitary

Effect: promotes growth of bone, cartilage and soft tissue

Regulation: hormonal – regulated by the release of growth-hormone releasing hormone and growth-hormone-inhibiting hormone from the hypothalamus

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15
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

release from anterior pituitary

Effect: stimulates the production and release of cortisol, androgens and aldosterone from the adrenal cortex

Regulation: hormonal –secreted in response to the secretion of the corticotropin-release hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus

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16
Q

follicle stimulating hormone

A

release from anterior pituitary

Effect: stimulates sperm production in males and maturation of ovarian follicles in females

Regulation: hormonal – regulated by the release of gonadotrophin release hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus

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17
Q

leuteinizing hormone

A

release from anterior pituitary

Effect: ovulation in females, and testosterone production in males

Regulation: hormonal – regulated by the release of gonadotrophin release hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus

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18
Q

prolactin hormone

A

Released from: anterior pituitary

Effect: stimulates milk production in the breasts

Regulation: hormonal – secretion is increased by the release of prolactin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus in response to the baby suckling at the breast

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19
Q

posterior pituitary gland hormones

A

Oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone

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20
Q

oxytocin hormone

A

Released from: posterior pituitary

Effect: increases uterine contractions during childbirth and is responsible for the ‘let down’ response during breastfeeding

Regulation: neural. Sensory receptors in the cervix and nipple sensory signals to the hypothalamus that results in the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland

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21
Q

antidiuretic hormone

A

Released from: posterior pituitary

Effect: increases reabsorption of water in nephrons (functional unit of the kidney)

Regulation: humoral – stimulated by increased plasma osmolality and decreased extracellular fluid volume

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22
Q

pineal gland hormones

A

melatonin

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23
Q

melatonin hormone

A

Released from: Pineal gland

Effect: secretion peaks at night. High levels induce drowsiness

Regulation: neural – suppressed by bright light

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24
Q

thyroid gland hormones

A

Thyroid hormones – Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyronine (T3)

Calcitonin

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25
Q

Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyronine (T3)

A

Released from: thyroid gland

Effect: increases metabolic rate, cell growth and production of body heat

Regulation: hormonal – regulated by the release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland

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26
Q

calcitonin hormone

A

Released from: thyroid gland

Effect: decreases blood calcium levels by increasing calcium excretion, promotes storage of calcium in bone, inhibits calcium absorption by the intestines

Regulation: humoral – controlled directly by blood calcium levels

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27
Q

parathyroid hormone

A

Released from: parathyroid gland

Effect: increases blood calcium levels by increasing calcium absorption, and stimulating osteoclast activity and therefore reabsorption of calcium from the bones

Regulation: Humoral – controlled directly by blood calcium levels

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28
Q

adrenal gland (adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex)

A

Adrenal cortex (outside) makes up 85% of the gland, Adrenal Medulla (inside) makes up other 15%

Adrenal cortex (outside)

Cortisol
Aldosterone
Sex hormones

Adrenal Medulla (inside)
Adrenaline
Noradrenaline

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29
Q

cortisol

A

Released from: adrenal cortex

Effect: increase protein breakdown, glucose formation, depresses the immune response

Regulation: stimulated by the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the anterior pituitary gland

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30
Q

aldosterone

A

Released from: adrenal cortex

Effect: reduces excretion of sodium. Increases the excretion of potassium. Increases water reabsorption and blood volume

Regulation: hormonal – primary control mechanism is the production of angiotensin II in response to reduced blood pressure

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31
Q

sex hormones

A

Released from: adrenal cortex

Effect: small amounts of weak androgen. In women, then promote libido (sex drive) and are converted into oestrogens (feminizing sex steroids) by other body tissues

Regulation: not fully understood. But the main hormone that stimulates its secretion is ACTH. Therefore, hormonal regulation

32
Q

adrenaline and noradrenaline

A

Released from: adrenal medulla

Effect: fight or flight response

Regulation: neural – innovated by the sympathetic nervous system

33
Q

pancreas

A

Endocrine part consists of clusters of cells called pancreatic islets

Alpha cells secrete glucagon

Beta cells secrete insulin

34
Q

insulin

A

Released from: beta cells of the pancreas

Effect: reduces blood glucose levels. Facilitates the uptake of glucose into muscle and fat. Stimulates the liver to store glucose as glycogen

Regulation: Humoral – increased blood glucose levels

35
Q

glucagon

A

Released from: Alpha cells of the pancreas

Effect: increases blood glucose levels. It stimulates the breakdown of glycogen stored in the liver

Regulation: humoral – decreased blood glucose levels

36
Q

gonads

A

are the organs that produce gametes – sperm in males and oocytes in females

37
Q

ovaries

A

Paired oval bodies located in the pelvic cavity

Hormones:

Oestrogen

Progesterone

38
Q

testes

A

Pair structures located outside the abdominal cavity, with in the scrotum

Hormones:

Testosterone

39
Q

Oestrogen and progesterone

A

Released from: ovaries

Effect: regulate the menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy, prepare the mammary glands for lactation, stimulates the development and maintenance of sexual characteristics

Regulation: hormonal – stimulated by FSH and LH

40
Q

testosterone

A

Released from: testes

Effect: regulates the production of sperm and stimulates the development and maintenance of sexual characteristics

Regulation: hormonal – stimulated by LH

41
Q

GI Tract

A

Mouth

Tongue

Palate

Pharynx

Oesophagus

Stomach

Small intestine

Large intestine

42
Q

accessory organs

A

Salivary glands

Liver

Gall bladder

Pancreas

43
Q

six basic digestive processes

A

Ingestion: taking food into the mouth

Secretion: release of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes into the lumen of the GI tract

Mixing and propulsion: churning and pushing food through the GI tract

Digestion: mechanical and chemical breakdown of food

Absorption: passage of digested products from the GI tract into the blood and lymph

Defecation: elimination of feces from the GI tract

44
Q

mechanical and chemical digestion

A

Mouth
Ingestion
Mechanical digestion by teeth
Chemical digestion by salivary amylase

Stomach
Mechanical digestion by churning
Chemical digestion of protein by digestive enzymes and HCI

Liver and pancreas
Secretion of digestive enzymes and bile into duodenum

Small intestine
Mechanical digestion via segmentation
Chemical digestion via digestive enzymes and bile
Major site of absorption

Large intestine
Bacteria breakdown remaining CHO and proteins
Absorption of water
Formation of feces

Rectum and anus
Elimination of feces via defecation

45
Q

layers of GI tract

A

Mucosa – inner layer. Lines the lumen and is in contact with digestive products

Submucosa – thick layer of connective tissue. Contains blood vessels and nerves that stimulate gastric glands

Muscularis – inner layer of circular smooth muscle and an outer layer of longitudinal smooth muscle. responsible for motility

Serosa – outer layer. Secrete serous fluid which lubricates and reduces friction

46
Q

salivary glands

A

Parotid gland

Sublingual

Submandibular

47
Q

functions of saliva

A

Dissolves food (99.5% water)

Lubricates food for swallowing (mucus)

Chemical digestion: salivary amylase – digestion of carbohydrates. Lingual lipase - digestion of lipids

48
Q

pharynx

A

The oropharynx and the laryngopharynx are passages for food and respiratory gases

The epiglottis closes off the entrance to the larynx during swallowing, precents food entering the larynx

49
Q

oesophagus

A

Muscular tube connection the pharynx to the stomach (approx. 25cm)

Moves bolus from pharynx to stomach via peristalsis

The upper oesophageal sphincter regulates the movement of substances into the oesophagus

Lower oesophageal (cardiac) sphincter regulates movement of substances from the oesophagus to the stomach

50
Q

peristalsis

A

Circular muscle behind the food contract

Circular muscle ahead of the food relax

Longitudinal muscle contracts as the food enters that region, reducing the distance the food needs to travel

51
Q

swallowing (deglutition)

A

The voluntary (oral) phase – voluntary, movement of the bolus from the oral cavity into the oropharynx

The pharyngeal phase – involuntary, movement of the bolus from the oropharynx into the oesophagus

The oesophageal phase – involuntary, movement of the bolus through the oesophagus and into the stomach

52
Q

arrector pilli

A

Small muscles located in the dermis that cause goosebumps

53
Q

epithelium layers

A

Simple: one layer of cells, used for absorption and filtration

Stratified: more than one layer of cells, used for protection

Pseudostratified – pseudo (false), stratified (more than one); appears multi-layered but is only made of one layer of cells where all cells connect to the basement membrane, but cell height varies

54
Q

epithelium shape

A

Squamous: flat cells, few organelles therefore minimal activity level

Cuboidal: equal in height and width, moderate number of organelles therefore moderate activity level

Columnar: taller than width, multiple organelles therefore high activity level

55
Q

pancreas

A

Delivers amylase, trypsin and lipase into duodenum to assist absorption. Bicarbonate – nullify chyme

56
Q

small intestine

A

Major site of digestion and absorption of nutrients and water in GIT

57
Q

large intestine

A

formation and storage of feces

58
Q

goblet cells

A

secrete mucous

59
Q

gallbladder

A

Stores, concentrates and delivers bile into the duodenum

60
Q

absorptive cells

A

Absorb nutrients

61
Q

villi

A

Finger-like projections of mucosa that increase surface area for absorption and digestion

62
Q

enteroendocrine cells

A

Secrete secretin and cholecystokinin

63
Q

microvilli

A

Microscopic, membrane-covered projections that increase surface area for absorption and digestion

64
Q

mucous neck cells

A

secrete mucous

65
Q

liver

A

Produces bile (bile salts) necessary for the emulsification and absorption of lipids

66
Q

parietal cells

A

Secrete intrinsic factor and hydrochloric acid

67
Q

chief cells

A

Secretes pepsinogen and gastric lipase

68
Q

desmosomes

A

Desmosomes are localized patches that hold two cells tightly together. They are common in epithelia (e.g., the skin). Desmosomes are attached to intermediate filaments of keratin in the cytoplasm

69
Q

plasma membrane function

A

The plasma membrane regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.

70
Q

cytosol function

A

It is involved in signal transduction between the cell membrane and the nucleus and organelles

71
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum funtion

A

It synthesizes lipids, phospholipids as in plasma membranes, and steroids.

72
Q

ribosomes function

A

the site of protein synthesis in the cell

73
Q

golgi apparatus function

A

proteins received from the ER are further processed and sorted for transport to their eventual destinations: lysosomes, the plasma membrane, or secretion

74
Q

lysosomes function

A

rid cells of waste products

75
Q

nucleus function

A

controls and regulates activities of the cell

76
Q

mitochondria function

A

generates ATP - power house of the cell

SAP (3 decks)

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