exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Humanistic Perspective
A
We are prevented from self-actualization when there is an incongruence between:
> “Ideal Self” (who we want to be); and > “Self Image” (how we perceive ourselves)
2
Q
- Behaviorism
A
> Classical Conditioning
> Operant Conditioning
3
Q
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
A
Pair a NEUTRAL stimulus (e.g. BELL) with a another stimulus (e.g. FOOD).
Result = we learn to associate the food with the bell
4
Q
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
A
The individual must do something and be rewarded for learning to occur
Example: “Skinner’s Cage”
5
Q
JAMMED with SLOP.
A
JAMMED with SLOP. J: Jumping to Conclusions A: All or Nothing Thinking M: Mental Filter M: Maximizing/Minimizing (Catastrophizing) E: Emotional Reasoning D: Downplaying the Positive S: Should Statements L: Labeling O: Overgeneralizing P: Personalization
6
Q
The Amazing Twins
A
Why were the unrelated students so similar? Basically, it’s because people of the same age and sex live in the same historical times and select from similar societal options. as just one example, in nearly every elementary school classroom, you will find several children with the same first name.
It appears then that many of the seemingly “astounding” coinci- dences shared by reunited twins may be yet another example of con- firmation bias. reunited twins tend to notice the similarities and ignore the differences.
7
Q
Are some personality traits more basic or important than others?
A
51.1.4 source traits are measured by the sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). ■ 51.1.5 the five-factor model identifies five universal dimensions of personality: extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience. the heXAco model adds a sixth: honesty/humility.
8
Q
Neuroticism
A
(sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident). The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, and vulnerability. Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional stability and impulse control and is sometimes referred to by its low pole, “emotional stability”. A high need for stability manifests as a stable and calm personality, but can be seen as uninspiring and unconcerned. A low need for stability causes a reactive and excitable personality, often very dynamic individuals, but they can be perceived as unstable or insecure.
9
Q
Agreeableness
\
A
Agreeableness
(friendly/compassionate vs. analytical/detached). A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. It is also a measure of one’s trusting and helpful nature, and whether a person is generally well-tempered or not. High agreeableness is often seen as naive or submissive. Low agreeableness personalities are often competitive or challenging people, which can be seen as argumentative or untrustworthy
10
Q
Conscientiousness
A
Conscientiousness
(efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless). A tendency to be organized and dependable, show self-discipline, act dutifully, aim for achievement, and prefer planned rather than spontaneous behavior. High conscientiousness is often perceived as stubbornness and obsession. Low conscientiousness is associated with flexibility and spontaneity, but can also appear as sloppiness and lack of reliability
11
Q
Openness to Experience
A
(inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious). Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience. Openness reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a preference for novelty and variety a person has. It is also described as the extent to which a person is imaginative or independent, and depicts a personal preference for a variety of activities over a strict routine. High openness can be perceived as unpredictability or lack of focus. Moreover, individuals
12
Q
The Big Five Personality Traits
A
The Big Five Personality Traits
The Big Five personality traits, also known as the five factor model, is a model based on common language descriptors of personality. These descriptors are grouped together using a statistical technique called factor analysis (i.e. this model is not based on scientific experiments). This widely examined theory suggests five broad dimensions used by some psychologists to describe the human personality and psyche. The five factors have been defined as openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, often listed under the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE. Beneath each proposed global factor, a number of correlated and more specific primary factors are claimed. For example, extraversion is said to include such related qualities as gregariousness, assertiveness, excitement seeking, warmth, activity, and positive emotions.
13
Q
Social influence
A
Social influence Changes in a person’s behaviour induced by the pres- ence or actions of others.
14
Q
Social loafing
A
The tendency of people to work less hard when part of a group than when they are solely responsible for their work.
15
Q
Groupthink
A
A compulsion by members of decision-making groups to maintain agreement, even at the cost of critical thinking.
16
Q
Character
A
Personal characteristics that have been judged or evaluated; a person’s desirable or undesirable qualities.
17
Q
Personality
A
Aperson’suniqueandrelativelystablepatternsofthinking, emotions, and behaviour.
18
Q
Personality trait
A
A stable, enduring quality that a person shows in most situations
19
Q
Self-concept
A
A person’s perception of his or her own personalitytraits
20
Q
Halo effect
A
The tendency to generalize a favourable or unfavourable particular impression to unrelated details of personality.
A fourth problem is the halo effect, which is the tendency to generalize a favourable (or unfavourable) impression to an entire personality (Hartung et al., 2010). Because of the halo effect, a person who is likable or physically attractive may be rated more mature, intelligent, or mentally healthy than she or he actually is. The halo effect is something to keep in mind at job interviews.
21
Q
can personality be measured?
A
50.2.1 techniques typically used for personality assessment are interviews, observation, questionnaires, and projective tests.
■ 50.2.2 structured and unstructured interviews provide much information, but they are subject to interviewer bias and misperceptions. the halo effect also may lower the accuracy of an interview.
■ 50.2.3 Direct observation, sometimes involving situational tests, behavioural assessment, or the use of rating scales, allows evaluation of a person’s actual behaviour. ■ 50.2.4 Personality questionnaires, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2), are objective and reliable, but their validity is open to question.
■ 50.2.5 Projective tests ask a person to project thoughts or feelings to an ambiguous stimulus or unstructured situation. two well-known examples are the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
■ 50.2.6 Projective tests are low in validity and objectivity. nevertheless, they are considered useful by many clinicians, particularly as part of a test battery.
22
Q
Trait theorist
A
A psychologist interested in classifying, analyzing, and interrelating traits to understand personality.
23
Q
Cardinal traits
A
are so basic that all of a person’s activities can be traced to the trait. For instance, compassion was an overriding trait of Mother Teresa’s personality. Likewise, Abraham Lincoln’s personality was dominated by the cardinal trait of honesty. According to Allport, few people have cardinal traits
24
Q
Central traits
A
are the basic building blocks of personality. A surprisingly small number of central traits can capture the essence of a person. For instance, just six traits would provide a good description of Jacintha’s per- sonality: dominant, sociable, honest, cheerful, intelligent, and
optimistic. When university students were asked to describe someone they knew well, they mentioned an average of seven central traits (Allport, 1961).
25
Secondary traits
are more superficial personal qualities, such as food preferences, attitudes, political opinions, musical tastes, and so forth. In Allport’s terms, a personality descrip- tion might therefore include the following items
26
high on Conscientiousness
Conscientious Hard-working Well-organized Punctual
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Low on Conscientiousnes
Negligent
Lazy
Disorganized
LATE
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Low on Emotionality/Neuroticism
Calm Even-tempered Comfortable Unemotional
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High on Emotionality/ Neuritucism
Worried Temperamental Self-conscious Emotional
30
low on Extroversion
Loner Quiet Passive Reserved
31
High on Extroversion
Joiner Talkative Active Affectionate
32
Low on Openness to Experience
Down-to-earth Uncreative Conventional Uncurious
33
High on openness to experience
Imaginative Creative Original Curious
34
On the big five whats the sixth?
the five-factor model identifies five universal dimensions of personality: extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience. the heXAco model adds a sixth: honesty/humility.
35
Whats the ego?
The ego is the system of thinking, planning, problem solving, and deciding. It is in conscious control of the personality and often delays action until it is practical or appropriate.
q
36
What is the role of the superego?
The superego acts as a judge or censor for the thoughts and actions of the ego. One part of the superego, called the conscience, reflects actions for which a person has been punished. When standards of the conscience are not met, you are punished internally by guilt feelings.
A second part of the superego is the ego ideal. The ego ideal reflects all behaviour one’s parents approved or rewarded. The ego ideal is a source of goals and aspirations. When its stan- dards are met, we feel pride.
The superego acts as an “internalized parent” to bring behaviour under control. In Freudian terms, a person with a weak superego will be a delinquent, criminal, or antisocial per- sonality. In contrast, an overly strict or harsh superego may cause inhibition, rigidity, or unbearable guilt.
37
the id ?
The id is made up of innate biological instincts and urges. The id operates on the pleasure principle. It is self- serving, irrational, impulsive, and totally unconscious—that is, it seeks to freely express pleasure-seeking urges of all kinds. If we were solely under control of the id, the world would be chaotic beyond belief.
The id acts as a power source for the entire psyche (sigh- KEY), or personality. This energy, called libido (lih-BEE- doe), flows from the Eros (life instincts). According to Freud, libido underlies our efforts to survive, as well as our sexual desires and pleasure seeking. Freud also described Thanatos (a death instinct)—although today it is more often thought of as an impulse toward aggression and destructive urges. Freud offered humanity’s long history of wars and violence as evi- dence of such urges. Most id energies, then, are aimed at dis- charging tensions related to sex and aggression.
38
The ego is sometimes described as the
The ego is sometimes described as the “executive” because it directs energies supplied by the id.
39
Freud in a nutshell
let’s say you are sexually attracted to an acquaintance. the id clamors for immediate satisfaction of its sexual desires but is opposed by the superego (which finds the very thought of sex shocking). the id says, “Go for it!” the superego icily replies, “never even think that again!” and what does the ego say? the ego says, “i have a plan!”
40
Freud’s model portrays per- sonality as a dynamic system directed by three mental struc- tures:
Freud’s model portrays per- sonality as a dynamic system directed by three mental struc- tures:
41
Psychoanalytic theory
Psychoanalytic theory `
42
the oral Stage
During the first year of life, most of an infant’s pleasure comes from stimulation of the mouth. If a child is overfed or frustrated, oral traits may be created. Adult expressions of oral needs include gum chewing, nail biting, smoking, kissing, overeating, and alcoholism.
43
Humanism
Humanism focuses on human experience, problems, poten- tials, and ideals. The core of humanism is a positive image of humans as creative beings capable of free will—an ability to choose that is not determined by genetics, learning, or uncon- scious forces. In short, humanists seek ways to encourage our potentials to blossom.
Humanism is sometimes called a “third force” in that it is opposed to both psychodynamic and behaviourist theories of personality. Humanism is a reaction to the pessimism of psychoanalytic theory. It rejects the Freudian view of person- ality as a battleground for instincts and unconscious forces. Instead, humanists view human nature—the traits, qualities, potentials, and behaviour patterns most characteristic of the
human species—as inherently good.
44
Subjective experience
Reality as it is perceived and interpreted, not as it exists objectively.
45
Self-actualization
The process of fully developing personal potentials.
46
Characteristics of Self-Actualizers
A self-actualizer is a person who is living creatively and fully using his or her potentials. In his studies, Maslow found that self-actualizers share many similarities. Whether famous or unknown, well- schooled or uneducated, rich or poor, self-actualizers tend to fit the following profile:
1. Efficient perceptions of reality. Self-actualizers are able to judge situations correctly and honestly. They are very sensitive to the fake and dishonest.
2. Comfortable acceptance of self, others, and nature. Self-actualizers accept their own human nature with all its flaws. The shortcomings of others and the contradic- tions of the human condition are accepted with humour and tolerance.
3. Spontaneity. Maslow’s subjects extended their creativity into everyday activities. Actualizers tend to be unusually alive, engaged, and spontaneous.
4. Task centring. Most of Maslow’s subjects had a mission to fulfill in life or some task or problem outside themselves to pursue. Humanitarians such as Albert Schweitzer and Mother Teresa represent this quality.
5. Autonomy. Self-actualizers are free from reliance on external authorities or other people. They tend to be resourceful and independent.
6. Continued freshness of appreciation. The self-actu- alizer seems to constantly renew appreciation of life’s basic goodness. A sunset or a flower is experienced as intensely time after time as it was first experienced. Self- actualizers have an “innocence of vision” like that of an artist or child.
7. Fellowship with humanity. Maslow’s subjects felt a deep identification with others and the human situation in general.
8. Profound interpersonal relationships. The inter- personal relationships of self-actualizers are marked by deep, loving bonds.
9. Comfort with solitude. Despite their satisfying rela- tionships with others, self-actualizing persons value soli- tude and are comfortable being alone.
10. Nonhostile sense of humour. This refers to the won- derful capacity to laugh at oneself. It also describes the kind of humour possessed by a man like Canadian comic Brent Butt, who is best known for his role on the television
show Corner Gas, As a comedian, he probably never made a joke that hurt anybody; instead, his wry comments were a gentle prodding of human shortcomings.
11. Peak experiences. All of Maslow’s subjects reported the frequent occurrence of peak experiences, or tem- porary moments of self-actualization. These occasions were marked by feelings of ecstasy, harmony, and deep meaning. Self-actualizers reported feeling at one with the universe, stronger and calmer than ever before, filled with light, beautiful and good, and so forth.
47
Martin Seligman, Christopher Peterson, and others have identified six human strengths that contribute to well-being and life satisfaction. Each strength is expressed by the posi- tive personality traits listed here
Wisdom and knowledge: Creativity, curiosity, open- mindedness, love of learning, perspective
● Courage: Bravery, persistence, integrity, vitality ● Humanity: Love, kindness, social intelligence
●
●
Justice: Citizenship, fairness, leadership Temperance: Forgiveness, humility, prudence, self-
control
● Transcendence: Appreciation of beauty and excel- lence, gratitude, hope, humour, spirituality
48
incongruence
incongruence occurs when there is a mismatch between any of these three entities: the ideal self (the person you would like to be); your self-image (the person you think you are); and the true self (the person you actually are). self-esteem suffers when there is a large difference between one’s ideal self and self-image. anxiety and defensiveness are common when the self-image does not match the true self
49
Carl Rogers, another well-known humanist, also emphasized the human capacity for
for inner peace and happiness (Elliott & Farber, 2010). The fully functioning person, he said, lives in harmony with his or her deepest feelings and impulses. Such people are open to their experiences, and they trust their inner urges and intuitions (Rogers, 1961). Rogers believed that this attitude is most likely to occur when a person receives ample amounts of love and acceptance from others
50
As the self-image grows more unrealistic, the incongruent person becomes
confused, vulnerable, dissatisfied, or seriously maladjusted
51
In line with Rogers’s observations, a study of university students confirmed that being authentic is vital for
healthy functioning—that is, we need to feel that our behaviour accurately expresses who we are (Wenzel & Lucas-Thompson, 2012). Please note, however, that being authentic doesn’t mean you can do whatever you want. Being true to yourself is no excuse for acting irresponsibly or ignoring the feelings of others (
52
Peak experiences
Temporary moments of self-actualization
53
Ideal self
An idealized image of oneself (the person one would like to be).
54
Possible selves
Possible selves A collection of thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and images concerning the person one could become.
55
Conditions of worth
Internal standards used to judge the value of one’s thoughts, actions, feelings, or experiences.
56
Organismic valuing
A natural, undistorted, full-body reaction to an experience
57
the Freudian view of personality development is based on a series of psychosexual stages
the oral, anal, phallic, and genital stages. according to Freud, fixation at any stage can leave a lasting imprint on personality.
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What are humanistic theories of personality?
What are humanistic theories of personality?
■ 52.2.1 Humanistic theories stress subjective experience, free will, self-actualization, and positive models of human nature.
■ 52.2.2 abraham maslow found that self-actualizers share characteristics that range from efficient perceptions of reality to frequent peak experiences.
■ 52.2.3 Positive psychologists have identified six human strengths that contribute to well-being and life satisfaction: wisdom and knowledge, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
■ 52.2.4 carl rogers viewed the self as an entity that emerges from personal experience. We tend to become aware of experiences that match our self-image and exclude those that are incongruent with it.
■ 52.2.5 the incongruent person has a highly unrealistic self- image and/or a mismatch between the self-image and the ideal self. the congruent or fully functioning person is flexible and open to experiences and feelings.
■ 52.2.6 as parents apply conditions of worth to children’s behaviour, thoughts, and feelings, children begin to do the same. internalized conditions of worth then contribute to incongruence that disrupts the organismic valuing process.
59
What do behaviourists and social learning theorists emphasize in their approach to personality?
Behavioural theories of personality emphasize learning, conditioning, and immediate effects of the environment (situational determinants). ■ 53.1.2 learning theorists dollard and miller consider habits the basic core of personality. Habits express the combined effects of drive, cue, response, and reward.
■ 53.1.3 social learning theory adds cognitive elements, such as perception, thinking, and understanding to the behavioural view of personality. ■ 53.1.4 social learning theory is exemplified by Julian rotter’s concepts of the psychological situation, expectancies, and reinforcement value.
■ 53.1.5 The behaviourist view of personality development holds that social reinforcement in four situations is critical. The situations are feeding, toilet or cleanliness training, sex training, and anger or aggression training.
■ 53.1.6 Identification and imitation are of particular importance in learning to be “male” or “female.”
60
How do heredity and environment affect personality?
Temperament refers to the hereditary and physiological aspects of one’s emotional nature. ■ 53.2.2 Behavioural genetics and studies of identical twins suggest that heredity contributes significantly to adult personality traits.
■ 53.2.3 Biological predispositions (traits) interact with environment (situations) to explain our behaviour.
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biopsychosocial model
which states that diseases are caused by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors
62
Health psychology
aims to use cognitive and behavioural principles to prevent illness and death and to promote health
63
Psychologists working in the allied field of behavioural medicine apply
psychology to manage medical problems, such as diabetes or asthma. Their interests include pain control, stress-related diseases, self- screening for diseases (such as breast cancer), helping people cope with chronic illness, and similar topics ``
64
Behavioural risk factors
Behaviours that increase the chances of disease, injury, or premature death.
65
“Mediterranean diet”
higher in fruit, vegetables, and fish and lower in red meat and dairy products. Likewise, you don’t need to exercise like an Olympic athlete to benefit from physical activity. All
66
What is health psychology, and how do cognition and behaviour affect health?
55.1.1 Health psychologists are interested in how cognition and behaviour help maintain and promote health. ■ 55.1.2 studies of health and illness have identified several behavioural risk factors that have a major effect on general health and life expectancy.
■ 55.1.3 at the minimum, it is important to maintain health- promoting cognitions and behaviours with respect to diet, alcohol, exercise, and smoking. ■ 55.1.4 Health psychologists have pioneered efforts to prevent the development of unhealthy habits and to improve well-being through community health campaigns.
■ 55.1.5 stress is a normal part of life that occurs when demands are placed on an organism to adjust or adapt. However, it also is a major risk factor for illness and disease. ■ 55.1.6 the body reacts to stress in a series of stages called the general adaptation syndrome (gas). the stages of the gas are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Bodily reactions in the gas follow the pattern observed in the development of psychosomatic disorders.
■ 55.1.7 Maintaining good health is a personal responsibility, not a matter of luck. Wellness is based on minimizing risk factors and engaging in health-promoting behaviours.
67
Pressure
Pressure is another element of stress, especially job stress. Pressure occurs when a person must meet urgent external demands or expectations (Szollos, 2009). For example, we feel pressured when activities must be speeded up, when dead- lines must be met, when extra work is added, or when we must work near maximum capacity for long periods. Most students who have survived final exams are familiar with the effects of pressure.
68
Epidemiology
is the study and analysis of the distribution, patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in defined population. It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare
69
Behaviour modification is
refers to any use of classical or operant con-
| ditioning to directly alter human behaviour
70
Behaviour therapy
Behaviour therapy is an action therapy that uses learning principles to make con- structive changes in behaviour. Behaviour therapists believe that deep insight into one’s problems is often unnecessary for improvement. Deborah didn’t need to probe into her past or her emotions and conflicts; she simply wanted to overcome her fear of flying.
71
Aversion therapy
Suppressing an undesirable response by associating it with aversive (painful or uncomfortable) stimuli.
72
Vicarious desensitization
A reduction in fear or anxiety that takes place vicariously (secondhand) when a client watches models perform the feared behaviour.
73
Virtual reality exposure
Use of computer-generated images to present fear stimuli. The virtual environment responds to a viewer’s head move- ments and other inputs.
74
Cognitive therapy
A therapy directed at changing the maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, and feelings that underlie emotional and behavioural problems.
75
Ten irrational Beliefs—Which Do you Hold?
rational-emotive behaviour therapists have identified numerous beliefs that commonly lead to emotional upsets and conflicts. see if you recognize any of the following irrational beliefs:
1. i must be loved and approved by almost every significant person in my life or it’s awful and i’m worthless.
Example: “one of my classmates doesn’t seem to like me. i must be a big loser.”
2. i should be completely competent and achieving in all ways to be a worthwhile person.
Example: “i don’t understand my physics class. i guess i really am just stupid.”
3. it’s terribly upsetting when things don’t go my way. Example: “i should have gotten a B in that class. The teacher is a
total jerk.”
4. it’s not my fault i’m unhappy; i can’t control my emotional reactions.
Example: “You make me feel awful. i would be happy if it weren’t for you.”
5. i should never forget it if something unpleasant happens. Example: “i’ll never forget the time my boss insulted me. i think
about it every day at work.”
6. it is easier to avoid difficulties and responsibilities than to face them.
Example: “i don’t know why my girlfriend is angry. Maybe it will just pass if i ignore it.”
7. A lot of people i have to deal with are bad. i should severely punish them for it.
Example: “The students renting next door are such a pain. i’m going to play my stereo even louder the next time they complain.”
8. i should depend on others who are stronger than me. Example: “i couldn’t survive if she left me.”
9. Because something once strongly affected me, it will do so forever.
Example: “My girlfriend dumped me during my first year in college. i can never trust a woman again.”
10. There is always a perfectly obvious solution to human problems, and it is immoral if this solution is not put into practice.
Example: “i’m so depressed about politics in this country. it all seems hopeless.”*
if any of the listed beliefs sound familiar, you may be creating unnecessary emotional distress for yourself by holding onto unreal- istic expectations.
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rational-emotive Behaviour Therapy
| Rational-emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) attempts to change
irrational beliefs that cause emotional problems. According to Albert Ellis (1913–2007), the basic idea of REBT is as easy as A-B-C (Ellis, 1995; Ellis & Ellis, 2011). Ellis assumed that people become unhappy and develop self-defeating habits because they have unrealistic or faulty beliefs.
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Rational-emotive behaviour therapy (REBT
What is the ABC?
The letter A stands for an activating experience, which the person assumes to be the cause of C, an emotional consequence. For instance, a person who is rejected (the activating experi- ence) feels depressed, threatened, or hurt (the consequence). Rational-emotive behaviour therapy shows the client that the real problem is what comes between A and C: B, which is the client’s irrational and unrealistic beliefs. In this example, an unrealistic belief leading to unnecessary suffering is: “I must be loved and approved by everyone at all times.” REBT holds that events do not cause us to have feelings.
Did you notice that the B in REBT stands for “behaviour”?
Today, most therapists realize that changing maladaptive
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Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)
An approach combining cognitive and behavioural therapies to optimize treatment outcomes
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How does cognitive therapy change thoughts and emotions?
67.3.1 cognitive therapy emphasizes changing thought patterns that underlie emotional or behavioural problems. its goals are to correct distorted thinking and/or teach improved coping skills. ■ 67.3.2 in Albert ellis’s variation of cognitive therapy, called rational-emotive behaviour therapy (reBT), clients learn to recognize and challenge the irrational beliefs that are at the core of their maladaptive thinking patterns
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How does cognitive behavioural therapy work?
cognitive behavioural therapy is one of the most commonly used approaches to treatment, and combines cognitive approaches with behavioural interventions to help clients change both their thoughts and actions.
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What role do operant principles play in behaviour therapy?
operant principles, such as positive reinforcement, nonreinforcement, extinction, punishment, shaping, stimulus
control, and time-out, are used to extinguish undesirable responses and to promote constructive behaviour. ■ 67.2.2 nonreward can extinguish troublesome behaviours. often this is done by simply identifying and eliminating reinforcers, particularly attention and social approval.
■ 67.2.3 To apply positive reinforcement and operant shaping, tokens are often used to reinforce selected target behaviours. ■ 67.2.4 Full-scale use of tokens in an institutional setting produces a token economy. Toward the end of a token economy program, patients are shifted to social rewards such as recognition and approval.
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Compliance
Bending to the requests of a person who has little or no authority or other form of social power.
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Groupthink
A compulsion by members of decision-making groups to maintain agreement, even at the cost of critical thinking.
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Conformity
Bringing one’s behaviour into agreement or harmony with norms or with the behaviour of others in a group in the absence of any direct pressure.
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Social facilitation
The tendency to perform better when in the presence of others.
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Mere presence
The tendency for people to change their behaviour just because of the presence of other people
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Foot-in-the-door effect
The tendency for a person who has first complied with a small request to be more likely later to fulfill a larger request.
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Door-in-the-face effect
The tendency for a person who has refused a major request to subsequently be more likely to comply with a minor request.
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Coercion
your will.
Being forced to change your beliefs or your behaviour against
Brainwashing How does brainwashing differ from other per- suasive techniques? As we have noted, advertisers, politicians, educators, religious organizations, and others actively seek to alter attitudes and opinions. To an extent, their persua- sive efforts resemble brainwashing, but there is an impor- tant difference: Brainwashing, or forced attitude change, requires a captive audience
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Cult
Cult A group that professes great devotion to some person and follows that person almost without question; cult members are typically victim- ized by their leaders in various ways
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Aggression
Hurting another person or achieving one’s goals at the
| expense of another person
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What have social psychologists learned about the various forms of social influence?
Social influence refers to alterations in behaviour brought about by the behaviour of others. Social influence ranges from milder (mere presence, conformity, and compliance) to stronger (obedience and coercion).
■ 71.1.2 The mere presence of others may facilitate (or inhibit) performance. people may also engage in social loafing, working less hard when they are part of a group. ■ 71.1.3 The famous asch experiments demonstrated that group sanctions encourage conformity. group members who succumb to groupthink seek to maintain each other’s approval, even at the cost of critical thinking.
■ 71.1.4 Groupthink refers to compulsive conformity in group decision making. ■ 71.1.5 Three strategies for gaining compliance are the foot- in-the-door technique, the door-in-the-face approach, and the lowball technique
most people have a strong tendency to obey legitimate authority. usually, this is desirable, but it can be damaging when social power is used in misguided or unscrupulous ways. ■ 71.1.7 obedience in milgram’s studies decreased when the victim was in the same room, when the victim and participant were face to face, when the authority figure was absent, and when others refused to obey.
■ 71.1.8 coercion involves forcing people to change their beliefs or behaviour against their will. forced attitude change (brainwashing) is sometimes used by cults and other coercive groups.
■ 71.1.9 Three steps in brainwashing are unfreezing, changing, and refreezing attitudes and beliefs.
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the Asch experiment How strong are group pressures for conformity? One of the first experiments on conformity was staged by Solomon Asch (1907–1996). To
To fully appreciate it, imagine yourself as a participant. Assume that you are seated at a table with six other students. Your task is actually quite simple: You are shown three lines on a card and you must select the line that matches a “standard” line ( Figure 71.1).
As the testing begins, each person announces an answer for the first card. When your turn comes, you agree with the others. “This isn’t hard at all,” you say to yourself. For several more trials, your answers agree with those of the group. Then comes a shock. All six people announce that line 1 matches the standard, and you were about to say line 2 matches. Suddenly you feel alone and upset. You nervously look at the lines again. The room falls silent. Everyone seems to be staring at you. The experimenter awaits your answer. Do you yield to the group?
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Nocebo
Nocebo has been defined as. a harmless substance or treatment that when taken by or administered to a patient is associated with harmful side effects or worsening of symptoms due to negative expectations or the psychological condition of the patient.
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placebo
A placebo is anything that seems to be a "real" medical treatment -- but isn't. It could be a pill, a shot, or some other type of "fake" treatment. What all placebos have in common is that they do not contain an active substance meant to affect health.
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Comorbidity
Many disturbed people are comorbid—that is, they suffer from more than one mental disorder at the same time. A person suffering from an anxiety disorder such as panic disorder may also be diagnosed with a depressive disorder. Sometimes comorbidity develops when a primary problem causes secondary problems. For example, someone like Ella, experiencing a prolonged and deep depression, might
turn to drugs
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Psychopathology
The scientific study of mental, emotional, and behavioural disorders; also maladaptive behaviour.
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Maladaptive behaviour
Behaviour arising from an underlying psycho- logical or biological dysfunction that makes it difficult to adapt to the environment and meet the demands of day-to-day life
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Susto:
among latin americans, the symptoms of susto include insomnia, irritability, phobias, and an increase in sweating and heart rate. susto can result if someone is badly frightened by a black magic curse. in extreme cases, voodoo death can result because the person is literally scared to death.
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how can psychiatric labelling be misused?
Psychiatric labels can be misused to harm and stigmatize people.
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A fascinating classic study carried out by psychologist David Rosenhan illustrates the impact of psychiatric labelling.
Rosenhan and several colleagues had themselves committed to psychiatric facilities with a diagnosis of “schizophrenia” (Rosenhan, 1973). After being admitted, each of these “pseu- dopatients” dropped all pretence of mental illness. Yet, even though they acted completely normal, none of the researchers was ever recognized by hospital staff as a phony patient. Real patients were not so easily fooled: It was not unusual for a patient to say to one of the researchers, “You’re not crazy, you’re checking up on the hospital!” or “You’re a journalist.”
clara Hughes is a six-time canadian olympic medalist who has been a tireless advocate for people suffering with mental illness.
NEL
To record his observations, Rosenhan took notes by care- fully jotting things on a small piece of paper hidden in his hand. However, he soon learned that stealth was totally unnecessary. Rosenhan simply walked around with a clipboard, recording observations. No one questioned this behaviour. Rosenhan’s note taking was just regarded as another symptom of his “ill- ness.” This observation clarifies why staff members failed to detect the fake patients. Because they were in a mental ward and because they had been labelled schizophrenic, anything the pseudopatients did was seen as a symptom of psychopathology.
As Rosenhan’s study implies, it is better to label problems than to label people. Think of the difference in impact between saying, “You are experiencing a serious psychological dis- order” and “You’re a schizophrenic.”
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What causes psychological disorders
Biological/organic factors: Genetic defects or inher- ited vulnerabilities, poor prenatal care, very low birth weight, chronic physical illness or disability, exposure to toxic chemicals or drugs, head injuries ( Figure 60.2)
● Psychological factors: Stress, low intelligence, learning disorders, lack of control or mastery
● Family factors: Parents who are immature, mentally disturbed, criminal, or abusive; severe marital strife; extremely poor child discipline; disordered family com- munication patterns
● Social conditions: Poverty, stressful living conditions, homelessness, social disorganization, overcrowding
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COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS
COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS
Instructions:
What are “cognitive distortions”? Which of the
following cognitive distortions have you engaged
in? Provide examples to demonstrate your
understanding of these cognitive distortions.
1. All-or-Nothing Thinking: You see things in black-andwhite categories. If you performance falls short of
perfect, you see yourself as a total failure.
2. Overgeneralization: You see a single negative event as
a never-ending pattern of defeat.
3. Mental Filter: You pick out a single negative detail and
dwell on it exclusively so that your vision of all reality
becomes darkened.
4. Downplaying the positive: You reject positive
experiences by insisting that they “don’t count” for some
reason. In this way you can maintain a negative belief
that is contradicted by your own experiences.
5. Jumping to Conclusions: You make a negative
interpretation even though there are no definite facts
that convincingly support your conclusion.
A: Mind Reading: You arbitrarily conclude that some
one is reacting negatively to you, and you don’t bother to
check this out.
B: The Fortuneteller Error: You can anticipate things
that will turn out badly, and you feel convinced that your
prediction is an already-established fact.
6. Magnification (Catastrophizing): You exaggerate the
significance of things.
7. Emotional Reasoning: You assume that your negative
emotions necessarily reflect the way things really are. “I
feel it, therefore it must be true”.
8.Should Statements: You try to motivate yourself with
should and shouldn’t statements, as if you had to be
whipped and punished before you could be expected to
do anything. “Musts” and “oughts” are also offenders.
The emotional consequences are guilt. When you direct
should statements towards others, you feel anger,
frustration, and resentment.
9. Labeling and Mislabeling: This is an extreme form of
overgeneralization. Instead of describing your error, you
attach a negative label to yourself. ”I’m a loser”. When
someone else’s behaviour rubs you the wrong way, you
attach a negative label to them. “They are a loser”.
10. Personalization: You see yourself as the cause of
some negative external event, which in fact you were not
primarily responsible for.
When you find yourself engaging in a cognitive distortion,
it helps to identify which one you are guilty of. Whenever
cognitive distortions interfere with your life, your brain is
JAMMED with SLOP.
J: Jumping to Conclusions
A: All or Nothing Thinking
M: Mental Filter
M: Maximizing/Minimizing (Catastrophizing)
E: Emotional Reasoning
D: Downplaying the Positive
S: Should Statements
L: Labeling
O: Overgeneralizing
P: Personalization
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Stanley milgram’s classic study of obedience: the “shock generator,” strapping a “learner” into his chair, and a “teacher” being told to administer a severe shock to the learner.
Why did so many people obey? Some have suggested that the prestige of Yale University added to participants’ willingness to obey. Could it be that they assumed the professor running the experiment would not really allow anyone to be hurt? To test this possibility, the study was rerun in a shabby office building in nearby Bridgeport, Connecticut. Under these conditions, fewer people obeyed (48 percent), but the reduction was minor.
Milgram was disturbed by the willingness of people to knuckle under to authority and senselessly shock someone. In later experiments, he tried to reduce obedience. He found that the distance between the teacher and the learner was important. When participants were in the same room as the learner, only 40 percent obeyed fully. When they were face- to-face with the learner and were required to force his hand down on a simulated “shock plate,” only 30 percent obeyed ( Figure 71.4). Distance from the authority also had an effect. When the experimenter gave his orders over the phone, only 22 percent obeyed. Finally, Milgram found that group support can greatly reduce destructive obedience. When real participants saw two other “teachers” (both actors) resist orders and walk out of the experiment, only 10 percent continued to obey. Thus, a personal act of courage or moral fortitude by one or two members of a group may free others to disobey misguided or unjust authority.
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When participants were in the same room as the learner, only 40 percent obeyed fully. When they were face- to-face with the learner and were required to force his hand down on a simulated “shock plate,” only
percent obeyed ( Figure 71.4). Distance from the authority also had an effect. When the experimenter gave his orders over the phone, only 22 percent obeyed. Finally, Milgram found that group support can greatly reduce destructive obedience. When real participants saw two other “teachers” (both actors) resist orders and walk out of the experiment, only 10 percent continued to obey. Thus, a personal act of courage or moral fortitude by one or two members of a group may free others to disobey misguided or unjust authority.
