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PSY 305 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 Functions of Color Vision?

A

Color helps us classify and identify colors.
Color facilitates perceptual organizaton
Color allows us to survive

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2
Q

What did Issac Newton propose regarding white light?

A

Isaac Newton proposed that white light was a mixture of differently colored lights.

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3
Q

What is a prism?

A

A prism was in an object that could separate the different colors from the white light.

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4
Q

What is the visual spectrum?

A

Visual spectrum colors that humans can perceive; 400-700 nanometers

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5
Q

How many nanometers can people see color?

A

Humans can perceive about 400-700 nanometers

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6
Q

How can you identify a Blue wavelength?

A

Blue- short wavelength

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7
Q

How can you Identify green wavelengths?

A

Green-medium(middle) wavelength

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8
Q

How can you identify a yellow wavelength?

A

Yellow- medium/long wavelength (a combo of the 2)

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9
Q

How can you identify a red wavelength?

A

Red- long wavelength

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10
Q

How do wavelengths get processed?

A

The color of an object is determined by wavelengths that are reflected by light into the eyes.

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11
Q

What are chromatic colors?

A

When light is able to reflect different wavelengths, think of red, green, blue.

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12
Q

What are Achromatic colors?

A

When light reflects EQUAL wavelengths (ex. white, black, and gray)

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13
Q

What is selective reflection?

A

When some colors reflect more than others.

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14
Q

What is selective transmission?

A

transmission curves are used to plot the percentage of light reflected or transmitted to perceive specific wavelengths.

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15
Q

What is the use of the reflectance and transmission curves?

A

They are used to plot the percentage of light reflected or transmitted to perceive specific wavelengths.

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16
Q

What two ways can we mix color to describe different wavelengths?

A

Mixing Paints

Mixing Lights

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17
Q

What happens when you mix paint colors?

A

Paint absorbs or takes away colors- short, medium, and long wavelengths mixed together creates black

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18
Q

What happens when you mix light colors? 💡

A

When light of short, medium, and long wavelengths are superimposed (placed over each other) they reflect a white light.

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19
Q

What is subtractive color mixture?

A

Paint is a subtractive color mixture when 2 mixed wavelengths lose their colors.

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20
Q

What are the three perceptual dimensions of color?

A
  • Hue
  • Value
  • Pureness
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21
Q

What is hue?

A

Hue is the color being assessed

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22
Q

What is Value?

A

The perceived brightness of the color

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23
Q

What is saturation?

A

The perceived pureness of color

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24
Q

What is DeSaturation?

A

The fading of color is due to more white in it.

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25
Q

What is the HSV color solid?

A

HSV= a new way to look at a hue, value, and saturation together.

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26
Q

What is the trichromatic theory of color vision?

A

When 3 different receptor mechanisms are responsible for color vision.

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27
Q

How many wavelengths do we rely on?

A

3 Wavelengths

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28
Q

What is the color matching experiment?

A

Adjust 3 wavelengths in a comparison field to match a test field of one wavelength

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29
Q

What is a test field?

A

The color light the experimenter wants the observer to match.

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30
Q

What is a comparison field?

A

The observer must manipulate the lightning to match the test field color.

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31
Q

What are the key findings of the color-matching experiment?

A

Adjusting 3 wavelengths= possible to match any colors in the test field.

Adjusting 2 wavelengths only= cannot match all colors

Normal color vision = requires 3 receptors

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32
Q

The cones consist of 3 pigments – what are they?

A

1 Short-wavelengths, 2 medium-wavelengths, and 3 long-wavelengths.

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33
Q

What is the visual pigment molecule?

A

retinal bends from ospin to produce light

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34
Q

What does the retinal represent?

A

protein structure differs representing the 3 different pigments

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35
Q

What does the opsin represent?

A

protein structure differs representing the 3 different pigments.

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36
Q

What is metamerism?

A

a situation in which colors of different wavelengths create an identical color.

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37
Q

What are metamers?

A

different wavelengths that come together to make a similar color

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38
Q

What happens when you have one receptor?

A

1 Receptor=1 Pigment

Wavelengths cannot be identified- color from light looks the same (shades of gray)

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39
Q

What is the principle of Principle univariance?

A

receptors cannot detect differences in wavelengths, only the intensity of light

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40
Q

What are the two theories of color vision?

A
  1. ) Trichromatic theory of color vision. Proposed by Helmholtz, Young, and Maxwell
  2. ) opponent-process theory. Proposed by Hering
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41
Q

What is the trichromatic theory of color vision?

A

explains cones in the retina

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42
Q

What is the opponent-process theory?

A

explains neural response from cones to the brain.

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43
Q

What is the phenomenological method?

A

describing an observation.

People observed a color circle - people were able to identify changes of a color

Note: The color circle leaves out saturation and value and focuses on the hue only
- this is different from a color (HSV) solid

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44
Q

What did Hering observe in the color circle?

A

Hering showed that differences in colors were observed as primary colors (red, yellow, green, or blue) are added in small amounts
He noticed that certain colors do not mix

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45
Q

What colors do not mix – opponent colors?

A

You can have bluish red and bluish green but not bluish yellow.
This led to the idea that certain pairs of colors are opposites and do not mix.
Color vision consists of opposing responses:
Blue/yellow
Green/red
Black/white

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46
Q

Based on physiological evidence of the opponent-process, what are opponent neurons and where are they located?

A

They respond in an excitatory way to one end of the visible spectrum and an inhibitory way to the other for color pairings.

Excitatory (positive) = neurons fire
Inhibitory (negative) = neurons don’t fire
in the retina and Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)

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47
Q

What are primary colors?

A

Red, yellow, green, or blue.

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48
Q

What are complementary after-images?

A

Seeing the opposite side of the color circle when a color disappears from an image. If green in an image disappears, you see red.

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49
Q

What are opponent neurons?

A

O.N responds in an excitatory manner to one end of the visible spectrum and an inhibitory manner to the other for color pairings.

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50
Q

How do the trichromatic and opponent-process theories work together?

A

Each theory describes physiological mechanisms in the visual system.
Trichromatic theory - explains cones in the retina
Opponent-process theory- explains neural response from cones to the brain.

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51
Q

Is there a single color center in the cortex?

A

There is no single area for color perception.

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52
Q

What is cerebral achromatopsia?

A

Cerebral Achromatopsia- brain damage causing loss of color vision.

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53
Q

What is color deficiency?

A

Partial loss of color perception

dichromats; some colors can still be observed.

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54
Q

How is it different from color blindness?

A

Color Blindness= they can’t see any colors AT ALL, just white, gray, and black; a monochromat.

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55
Q

What are unilateral dichromats?

A

People with trichromatic vision in one eye and dichromatic vision in the other.

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56
Q

What are Ishihara plates?

A

A color vision test to diagnose people with color deficiencies.

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57
Q

What is a monochromat?

A

Rare hereditary condition of color blindness
Only rods and no functioning cones
Perceives white, gray, and black tones
Poor visual acuity (unable to see details)
Sensitive to bright light

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58
Q

What colors do monochromats see?

A

Perceives white, gray, and black tones

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59
Q

Describe the problems someone who is a monochromat may deal with in their color vision.

A

Poor visual acuity (unable to see details)

Sensitive to bright light

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60
Q

What is a dichromat?

A

Perceives some color but not all; lacks one type of wavelength
Males tend to have it more than females.
Why? MAles lack the extra X chromosome.
If only 1 X has a genetic defect, the color becomes deficient.

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61
Q

Who is more likely to be a dichromat – males or females?

A

Males tend to have it more than females.

Why? Males lack the extra X chromosome.

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62
Q

What is causing an individual to be a dichromat?

A

If only 1 X has a genetic defect, the color becomes deficient.

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63
Q

What are the three types of dichromats?

A

Protanopia
Deuteranopia
Tritanopia

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64
Q

Explain the issues with protanopia.

A

Person sees:
Short wavelengths as blue
Fades to gray (neutral point) at 492 Nanometers.
Not able to see green as much.
Long-wavelengths as yellow above the neutral point
However, difficulty seeing red ( lacks long-wavelength pigment)

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65
Q

Explain the issues with deuteranopia.

A

Person sees:
Short wavelengths as blue
Fades to gray (neutral point) at 498 nanometers
Difficulty seeing green (lacks medium wavelength pigment)
Long-wavelengths as yellow above neutral point (not able to see red as much)

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66
Q

Explain the issues with tritanopia.

A 
Lacking Blue Cones
Difficulty seeing blue (lacks
short-wavelength pigment)
Fades to gray (neutral point) at 570 nm
Long-wavelength as red above neutral
point (unable to see yellow)
VERY RARE
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67
Q

What is color constancy?

A

We perceive the colors of objects as not changing even under different lighting.

Prolonged exposure to achromatic color leads to receptors in the cones to adapt to that color, making us less sensitive to that color and more sensitive to other colors not exposed as much.

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68
Q

What is lightness constancy?

A

We perceive achromatic colors (white, gray, and black) as remaining relatively constant

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69
Q

What does the term, lightness, mean?

A

Different shades of grey

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70
Q

What is depth perception?

A

Automatic through repeated exposure of cues.

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71
Q

What are the three types of cues to signal depth?

A

Oculomotor
Monocular
Binocular

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72
Q

What is an oculomotor cue?

A

Cues are given based on sensing the position of the eyes through tension in eye muscles. How our eyeballs move around to identify distance!

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73
Q

What is a monocular cue?

A

Depth cues are created from one eye. Consist of 2 types of cues: Pictorial cues and Motion-produced cues.

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74
Q

What is a binocular cue?

A

Cues that depend on two eyes.

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75
Q

Define accommodation

A

Change in the shape of the lens to focus on objects at different distances.
EX. Lens flatten when the object is far away from the eyes.

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76
Q

Define convergence

A

Inward movement of eyes when focusing on nearby objects.

Converge = Come Together

77
Q

Monocular cues consist of what two types of cues?

A

Pictorial cues and Motion-produced cues.

78
Q

What are the eight pictorial cues?

A
  1. ) Occlusion
  2. ) Relative Height
  3. ) Familiar Size
  4. ) Relative Size
  5. ) Perspective Convergence
  6. ) Atmospheric Perspective
  7. ) Texture Gradient
  8. ) Shadows
79
Q

What is occlusion?

A

Think Adventure Time!

When one object hides or partially hides from another object, causing the hidden object to seem farther away

80
Q

What is relative height?

A

Objects closer to the base of the horizon are seen as more distant; whereas objects away from the base are seen closer.

81
Q

What is familiar size?

A

Judging distance according to prior knowledge of the sizes of objects (coins)

82
Q

What is relative size?

A

When objects are of equal size, the one farther away takes up less of your field of view than the closer one.

83
Q

What is perspective convergence?

A

Parallel lines appear to come together in the distance, showing an increase in distance (Abby Road)

84
Q

What is atmospheric perspective?

A

Occurs when distant objects appear less sharp (e.g., being very foggy and unclear) than nearer objects
Farther distances tend to give off short wavelengths from light - that is why the sky looks blue.

85
Q

What is texture gradient?

A

Think of the lilypads picture!

Elements in a scene seem more closely packed when distance increases. A smaller texture appears in the distance.

86
Q

What are Shadows?

A

A decrease in light intensity due to blockage of light can provide info for location. Shadows can also make objects 3D.

87
Q

What are the two motion-produced cues?

A

Sources of depth info that come from an observer’s movement.

88
Q

What is motion parallax?

A

Close objects in direction of movement glide rapidly past but objects in the distance appear to move slowly.

When driving in your car things look like they’re moving slower than they actually are.

89
Q

What is deletion?

A

the covering of an object

90
Q

What is accretion?

A

the uncovering of an object

91
Q

What is stereoscopic depth perception?

A

Our awareness of depth through input by both eyes

Each eye has a different viewpoint

92
Q

What is the difference between a two-dimensional and three-dimensional image?

A

Positioning.

2D - both eyes receive the same info that Images are flat, relying on monocular cues (pictorial cues) for both eyes
3D - both eyes receive different info Images are positioned in different viewpoints to produce a 3D experience

93
Q

What is strabismus?

A

Someone who is cross-eyed, a misalignment of the eyes.

94
Q

How do people with strabismus perceive images?

A

People with strabismus rely on monocular cues instead of binocular cues.

95
Q

What is binocular disparity?

A

Differences in images from the left and right eyes

96
Q

If both eyes have different viewpoints, how do we perceive an image as a single viewpoint with both eyes?

A

Corresponding retinal points - points on the retina where an image overlap → falls on the fovea.

97
Q

What are the corresponding retinal points?

A

Objects that appear in the corresponding retinal points overlap into a single image.

98
Q

What is a horopter?

A

an imaginary sphere that passes through the point of focus. Objects on the horopter fall on the corresponding points on the 2 retinas

99
Q

What are non-corresponding retinal points?

A

Objects that do not fall on the horopter.

These points create different images in both eyes

100
Q

What is absolute disparity?

A

Objects deviate from falling on corresponding retinal points.

101
Q

What is the angle of disparity?

A

The amount of absolute disparity indicates how far an object is from the horopter.

102
Q

What is relative disparity?

A

The difference between the absolute disparity of 2 objects.

103
Q

What is crossed-disparity?

A

When you focus your horopter from FAR AWAY, a close object in front of you creates a crossed disparity (the close object goes between the focused object of the horopter).

104
Q

What is uncrossed disparity?

A

When you focus your horopter from a close object, your far object creates an uncrossed disparity (the far object goes to the sides of your close object from the horopter).

105
Q

What is stereopsis?

A

The ability to perceive depth through binocular disparity (differences in viewpoint for both eyes)
In 3D movies, slightly different positions of an image in the left-eye and right-eye are superimposed (placed over each other) on a screen - this creates stereopsis.

106
Q

How does the visual system match (correspond to) images from the two eyes when both eyes are shown different viewpoints in 3D?

A

Our visual system is able to detect specific features or parts of an object from both eyes together to form a single 3D object.

107
Q

Has the correspondence problem been resolved?

A

Researchers are still trying to figure this problem out!

108
Q

What are binocular depth cells?

A

They are specialized neurons that respond to binocular disparity.

109
Q

What is another name for it?

A

disparity-selective cells

110
Q

Where are these specialized neurons located?

A

Located in the primary visual cortex, temporal lobe, and parietal lobe.

111
Q

What do these neurons specifically respond to?

A

Absolute disparity (i.e., when your left and right eyes create different images and not a single image).

112
Q

What is absolute disparity?

A

When your left and right eyes create different images and not a single image.

113
Q

What perceptions are interrelated to perceive size?

A

Depth and size

114
Q

Explain what the Holway and Boring experiment is about and what did they find when depth cues (Part 1) and no depth cues (Part 2) are provided?

A

A luminous test circle was in the right hallway placed from 10 to 120 feet away
A luminous comparison circle was shown in the left hallway at 10 feet away

Goal: To adjust the diameter of the comparison circle (left hallway) to match the test circle (right hallway) Test circles had the same visual angles in the eye.

115
Q

What is the Visual Angle?

A

The angle of an object relative to the observer’s eye.

116
Q

What is size constancy?

A

X

117
Q

What are visual illusions?

A

Perception of an object’s size will remain relatively the same even when we view the object at different distances.

118
Q

Describe the Müller-Lyer illusion

A

Misperceiving two lines with equal lengths as different due to the fins connected to the lines.

119
Q

Describe the Ponzo illusion,

A

Two same-sized objects are placed over different areas of a railroad track in a picture.
Far objects appear larger than the closer object although both are the same size.
Possible explanation- misapplied size-constancy scaling.

120
Q

Describe the Ames room illusion

A

2 People of equal size appear very different in size in a room.
One appears like a giant over the other

121
Q

Describe the moon illusion

A

The moon appears larger on the horizon than when it is higher in the sky.

122
Q

Describe misapplied size constancy scaling,

A

we view 2D as though it is 3D.

123
Q

Describe conflicting cues theory,

A

Conflicting cues theory- our misperception of line length is caused by conflicting information: the actual length of lines and the overall length of the figure.

124
Q

Describe size-distance scaling,

A

Size distance scaling:

Distance is the same for both people but not the size.

125
Q

Describe relative size,

A

Relative Size:

One person is taking up more space than the other in the same distance.

126
Q

Describe apparent-distance theory,

A

Apparent-Distance Theory:
Horizon moon is surrounded by depth cues while the moon higher in the sky has none.

WHEN WE SEE @ GROUND LEVEL

127
Q

Describe angular size-contrast theory.

A

Angular Size-Contrast Theory:
The moon appears smaller when surrounded by larger objects.
When we see at the Sky level.

128
Q

What is sound?

A

2 ways of defying sound:
Physical- sound is what a person senses during hearing through pressure changes occurring in the ears.
Perceptual - sound is what the person experiences, perceives, or interprets during the hearing.

129
Q

What happens when you have two receptors?

A

Ability to identify 2 wavelengths and not just the intensity of light.

130
Q

What happens when you have 3 receptors?

A

3 Receptors= 3 Pigments

Ability to identify 3 wavelengths, creating perception of many colors.

131
Q

What are binocular depth cells?

A

They are specialized neurons that respond to binocular disparity, sometimes called disparity-selective cells.

132
Q

What are sound waves?

A

the pattern of air pressure moving or vibrating

133
Q

What two patterns occur with these sound waves?

A
  1. ) Condensation

2. ) Rarefaction

134
Q

What is condensation?

A

when sound first comes out, there is an increase of air pressure in the atmosphere (air molecules are pushed together)

135
Q

What is rarefaction?

A

when air pressure spreads out in the atmosphere, there is a DECREASE in air pressure (air molecules are more apart)

136
Q

How do sound waves travel?

A

air pressure from air molecules does not just go outward. The air molecules vibrate BACK and FORTH in a certain way at a location and stay about the same place for that location

137
Q

What is a pure tone?

A

a pattern of pressure changes mathematically described as a sine wave.

138
Q

What is frequency?

A

the number of cycles within a given time period

139
Q

What unit of measurement is represented for

frequency?

A

Hertz (Hz) - 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

140
Q

What does frequency represent perceptually?

A

Represents pitch (tone)

141
Q

What happens to the frequency when

the tone increases?

A

frequency increases

142
Q

What is amplitude?

A

difference in pressure between high and low peaks of wave; the size of air pressure

143
Q

What does amplitude represent perceptually?

A

Unit of Represents loudness

144
Q

What happens when the peak of the sound wave gets higher?

A

The higher the peaks of the sound wave, the louder the sound.

145
Q

What is loudness?

A

Our ability to detect sound!

Measured based on dB (the level or amplitude of sound) Often referred to as dB SPL (decibel sound pressure level)

146
Q

How do we experience loudness – what happens when it is 0 dB or 120 dB

A

0 dB - can’t hear anything

120 dB+ = extremely loud (you can actually destroy your ears and feel pain in your ears)

147
Q

What is the audibility curve?

A

The combination of loudness and pitch can be graphed into an audibility curve to show the threshold (detection) of hearing

148
Q

How many hertz can we hear sound?

A

We can hear sounds between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz

149
Q

Between how many hertz

are humans most sensitive to sound?

A

Humans are most sensitive between 2,000 and 4,000 Hz

150
Q

What is the auditory response area?

A

Auditory response area - the area between hearing in the audibility curve and feeling pain.

151
Q

What is pitch?

A

our ability to perceive high and low tones
Low frequency = sound of a tuba
High frequency = sound of a piccolo

152
Q

What is timbre?

A

(pronounced TAM-ber) - our ability to detect differences of sound not due to loudness, pitch, or duration.
EX. - being able to identify different instruments playing at the same loudness, pitch, and duration.

153
Q

What is an attack of sound?

A

buildup of sound at the beginning of tone

154
Q

What is a decay of sound?

A

decrease of sound at the end of tone

155
Q

What happens if you eliminate hearing the attack and decay of instruments?

A

you can have difficulty distinguishing one instrument from another.

156
Q

What are the three basic tasks of the auditory system?

A
  1. ) Sound stimulus enters ear to auditory receptors
  2. ) Stimulus from air pressure changes into electrical signals from receptors to the brain (transduction)
  3. ) Brain interprets electrical signals (e.g., loudness, pitch, timbre, location)
157
Q

What are the three divisions of the ear?

A

Outer Ear, Middle Ear, Inner Ear

158
Q

In the outer ear, what are the pinnae?

A

the physical structure that sticks out of our head (we call them our ears)

159
Q

What is the pinnae’s function?

A

Helps identify location of sound

160
Q

What is the auditory canal?

A

Tube-like 3 centimeter long structure

161
Q

What is the canal’s two functions?

A

Protects the tympanic membrane (a.k.a., eardrum; the part responsible for sound vibration)

Resonance - amplifies (increases) the sounds’ frequency between 1,000 and 5,000 Hertz (Hz)

162
Q

What is the tympanic membrane or eardrum,

A

part responsible for sound vibration)

163
Q

What is resonance?

A

amplifies (increases) the sounds’ frequency between 1,000 and 5,000 Hertz (Hz)

164
Q

In the middle ear, how many cubic centimeters is the cavity (opening)?

A

2 cubic centimeter cavity (opening) separating inner from the outer ear

165
Q

What are ossicles and how many are there?

A

3 and they are the smallest bones in body.

166
Q

What are the following:
malleus (hammer)
incus (anvil)
stapes (stirrup)

A

1.) malleus (hammer)
attached to tympanic membrane; moves due to sound vibration
2.) incus (anvil)
sends a vibration to stapes
3.) stapes (stirrup) -
sends a vibration to the inner ear via the oval window of the cochlea

167
Q

What are the functions of the ossicles?

A

Air pressure changes are transmitted poorly in the inner ear due to being filled with fluid
Ossicles amplify the air pressure changes (vibrations) when sent to the fluid of the inner ear
Attached to ossicles are middle-ear muscles that help us to perceive sound from the environment without the sound of our voices or chewing interfering what we hear

168
Q

What are the middle-ear muscles?

A

middle-ear muscles help us to perceive sound from the environment without the sound of our voices or chewing interfering with what we hear.

169
Q

Which division of the ear has fluid? I

A

INNER EAR

170
Q

In the inner ear, what is the cochlea?

A

Cochlea: fluid-filled snail-like structure (35 millimeters long if uncoiled) set into vibration by the stapes.

171
Q

When the cochlea is uncoiled, what and where is the cochlear partition, scala vestibule, and scala tympani?

A

Scala vestibule - upper half of cochlea

Scala tympani - lower half of cochlea

172
Q

Where is the base and where is the apex?

A 
Base = (stapes end)
Apex = (far end)
173
Q

What is inside the cochlear partition?

A

the structures for transforming the vibrations from the cochlea to electrical signals

174
Q

What organ is inside of the

cochlear partition?

A

Organ of Corti

175
Q

What are cilia?

A

hair cells - receptors for hearing)

176
Q

In the organ of Corti, what are the two membranes that help to create electrical signals into the brain?

A

Basilar membrane - moves up and down when fluid vibration occurs
Tectorial membrane - slides back and forth, moving the hair cells

177
Q

What are the two types of cilia?

A

Inner hair cells - not in contact with the tectorial membrane but can identify pressure waves from it
Outer hair cells - in contact with the tectorial membrane

178
Q

Who was Georg von Békésy - what did he find?

A

found that the basilar membrane vibrated like a traveling wave (a motion similar to a rope when you snap it that goes up and down)

179
Q

What is the traveling wave?

A

(a motion similar to a rope when you snap it that goes up and down)

180
Q

What is the place theory of hearing?

A

Each place on the basilar membrane is tuned to respond best to a different frequency

181
Q

What is the tonotopic map?

A

an orderly map of frequencies along its length of the cochlea

182
Q

What area responds best to low frequencies and

what area responds best to high frequencies?

A

Apex - responds best to low frequencies

Base - responds best to high frequencies

183
Q

After the hair cell fire from the cochlea, where do the signals go?

A

The Brain
Sends info in the following sequence (order):
1.) Cochlear nucleus (brain stem)
2.) Superior olivary nucleus (brain stem)
3.) Inferior colliculus (midbrain)
4.) Medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus)
5.) Auditory receiving area (A1 in temporal lobe)

184
Q

Know the sequence of the
auditory pathway.

CSI Massachusetts:

A 
CSI Massachusetts: 
Cochlear Nucleus
Superior Olivary Nucleus
Inferior Colliculus
Medial Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalamus
A1-Auditory receiving area
185
Q

What is presbycusis?

A

Presbycusis- loss of sensitivity to hearing high frequencies due to damaging noises or drugs (in addition to aging)

186
Q

What is noise-induced hearing loss?

A

Noise-Induced Hearing Loss- loud noise for a long period of time can severely damage the organ of Corti

187
Q

What are cochlear implants?

A

An electrode device that acts as a cochlea and stimulates the auditory nerve fibers.

188
Q

How do hair cells create electrical signals into the auditory nerve fibers?

A

Vibration (pressure waves) bends hair cells
Bending of hair cells in one direction creates electrical signals (transduction) and bending in opposite direction stops electrical signals
Electrical signals go into the auditory nerve fibers (located in the basilar membrane), where neurons fire into the brain

PSY 305 (2 decks)

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