Exam 2 Study Guide Flashcards
Common lineage from which all taxa are descended (indicated at the base of the tree)
Rooted
No common lineage.
Root direction of time unspecified
Unrooted
Most recent common ancestor (shown with a dot/point)
Interior nodes
An ancestral tax on and all of its descendants
Monophyletic group/Clare
Used as a root for a phylogenetic tree. It’s evolutionary relationship to tax on being studied is already known
Out group
A diagram to show inferred evolutionary relationship to a shared common ancestors
Phylogenetic tree
A group that includes the ancestor and all of the descendants (also known as a clade)
Monophyly
A group that includes the common ancestor of all its members but does not contain every species that descended from that ancestor
Paraphyly
A group characterized by one or more homoplasies, they have evolved separately but gained one or more similar traits
Polyphyly
Any observable feature, or trait of an organism whether acquired or inherited
Character
Finite number of states (ex: number of vertebrate; nucleotide sequence
Discrete
Infinite number of states (ex: height and length
Continuous
Particular version of a character (ex: straight curly)
Character state
When are character states informative
If they are shared (homologous) and derived
A trait shared by two or more species because those species have inherited the trait from a shared common ancestor
Homologous trait
A trait that has changed form or state from the ancestral from over evolutionary
Derived trait
An approach to selecting the best phylogenetic tree given some set of character data. _ methods assume that the best tree is the only one that requires the fewest character changes to explain the data (but remember _ is not the only criterion for creating phylogenetic trees)
Parsimony
A trait that is similar in two species, but NOT due to common ancestry poses a problem because it can be misleading trying to reconstruct an evolutionary tree results in wrong conclusions
Homoplasy
Lost three evolutionary sources of homoplasy
Convergent evolution
Parallel evolution
Evolutionary reversal
An inherited trait reverting back to an earlier form over the course of many generations
Evolutionary reversal
Species develop similar traits because they share a similar way of life (not a common ancestor)
Convergent Evolution
The independent evolution of similar traits, starting from a similar ancestral condition
Parallel evolution
A trait that is similar in two different species or taxa, not because of common descent, but rather as a result of natural selection operating in similar ways along appear ate evolutionary lineages
Analogous trait
The us of comparisons of sets of species to test hypotheses about evolution
Comparative method
Links the phylogenetic history to the geographic distribution of organisms in an effort to reconstruct migration and patterns of speciation over time and space
Phylogeography
A common method for assigning absolute time to our molecular genetic phylogeny is to “____” our molecular genetic data to data obtained from the fossil record
Anchor
How is the comparative method can help scientists determine the significance of correlations?
It is used to test for correlated evolutionary changes in two or more trait (ex: whether a trait is an adaption to another trait:outside force)
Order from largest to smallest number of species
(Fungi, Protozoa, viruses, algae, insects,animals, plants, prokaryote
Insects, animals, plants, fungi, Protozoa, algae, prokaryote, viruses
Defines a species as a group of organisms that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Used is speciation
Biological species concept
Defines a species as a populations that differs morphologically from other populations. Used in describing species
Morphological species concept
Defines a species as a group whose members are descended from a common ancestor and who all possess a combination of certain defining or derived traits. Used in describing species and broad spectrum grouping
Phylogenetic species concept
This is good for broad spectrum grouping
Phylogenetic
List is the three major categories of isolating mechanism
Postzygotic
Prezyoric
Premating
After embryo forms
Postzygotic
Hybrid embryo forms but reduced viability
Hybrid inviability
Hybrid is viable but resulting adult is sterile
Hybrid sterility
Genetic mechanisms largely independent of the environment
Intrinsic
Environment dependent
Extrinsic
Sperm transfer takes place but egg is not fertilized
Genetic incompatibility
Egg is fertilizer but zygote does not develop
Zygotic mortality
Individuals of different species do not mate because they do not mate because they are active at different times of day or in different seasons
Temporal isolation
No hybrid zygote is formed
Prezygotic
Individuals mate in their preferred habitat and therefore don’t meet individuals of other species with different ecological preferences
Ecological isolation
Potential mates meet but choose members of their own species
Behavioral isolations
Copulation is attempted but transfer of sperm does not take place
Mechanical isolation
Two subcategories of postzygotic isolation
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Hybrids are selected against in nature (no niche)
Ecological
Hybrids cannot find appropriate mates
Behavioral
List the mechanism of premating isolation presented in class
Temporal isolation
Habitat isolation
Mate/ choice
Mechanical isolation
Breeding at different times
Temporal isolations
Association between mating and habitat location:preference
Habitat isolation
Based on certain characteristics (ex moths choose mates based on corresponding pheromones of their species)
Mate choice
Compulation is attempted but the organisms are ultimately incompatible and sperm is not transferred ( genitalia of certain male insects can damage females of other species of compulation if attempted)
Mechanical isolation
List three major geographic categories of speciation
Allopatric speciation
Parapatric
Sympatric
Some gene flow in populations that are adjoining one another but may be caused to diverge by different environmental factors
Parapatric speciation
With little gene flow: geographical isolation
Allopathic speciation
Barrier to organism movement that separates populations
Vicariance
Dispersal to an island, individuals evolve independently, reproductively isolated from continent group
Peripheral isolation
Geographically interspersed individuals where interaction can occur throughout much of the range: higher gene flow but still see divergence j(may be due to habitat choice)
Sympatric speciation
-The process by which natural selection increases reproductive isolation. -When two populations become separated then come back together the reproductive isolation between them may be complete or incomplete -reproductive character displacement
Theory of reinforcement
A divergence of mating characters in zones of sympathy but not allopatry
Reproductive character displacement
If reproductive isolation between populations is complete, speciation ____
Can occur
If reproductive isolation between population is not complete what are produced
Hybrids
Triggered by a key adaptation which allows the organized to evolve to exploit a new resource or niche
Adaptive radiation
____ resulted in similar not polities for different abolish lizard species on different islands.
Convergent evolution
Explain how ecological opportunity can drive an adaptive radiation
Allows speciation to occur rather quickly environmental conditions that both permit the persistence of a lineage within a community as well as generate divergent natural selections with that lineage
When did the first cellular life originate?
The archaen era
What are the three major groups in the phylogeny of life?
Archaea
Eukaryota
Bacteria
Name that era:
- first cellular life
- Cyanobacteria started forming oxygen through photosynthesis
- major evolutionary changes
Archaen era (3.6 bya)
Name that era
First eukaryotes and later multicellular organisms
Proterozoic era (2.5 bya)
Name that era:
Appearance of most major animal phyla and land plants
Paleozoic era (543 Mya)
Name the era:
Reptiles and dinosaurs
Mesozoic era (252 mya)
Ice age
Cenozoic era (65 mya)
Name that period:
Cambrian explosion
(Takes place during the Paleozoic era)
Cambrian period
Name that period:
Age of fishes
(Paleozoic era)
Devonian period
Name that period
Placental mammals flowering plants
Mesozoic era
Cretaceous period
Name that period
Radiations of mammals and birds
Cenozoic era
Paleogene period
A group of related genes that determine the basic structure and orientation of an organism
Hox genes
What is critical for the proper placement of segment structures of animals During early embryonic development
Hox genes
Homologous hox genes established body plans I organisms that had not shared common ancestors for millions of years
Evidence of evolution
What types of organisms fossilize well?
Marine invertebrates (hard calcareous skeletons) especially living in shallow water)
What types of organisms fossilize poorly?
Organisms without hard skeletal parts, fragile organisms, terrestrial organisms
What are four challenges of obtaining a complete fossil record
- Most organisms consumed by animals or decomposes
- sediments form in anyone place episodically
- fossils must persist for millions of years
- rocks must be accessible to paleontologist
What features inform us about the transitions on the evolution of the mammalian lineage from their fish ancestors?
Bony skeleton
Lungs
Limbs (with digits)
What are three major patterns in changes in taxonomic diversity from 600 million years ago to the present?
- Continual growth followed by mass extinction overall exponential growth in number of species on earth
- huge growth in the Cambrian period
- all organisms on planet follow same taxonomic diversity trends
What is mass extinction?
A wide spread and rapid decrease in the amount of life on earth
Most favored mass extinction
Volcanic eruptions
List 4 ways humans are responsible for current rash mass extinction?
- Hunting
- Invasive species introduced by humans
- habitat destruction
- climate change
Why was it difficult to distinguish relationships among chimps, gorillas and humans?
- evolutionary relationships among the living apes and humans were difficult to determine when paleontologist so had only their morphology to compare them
- ideas were not based on fissile evidence but instead on ideas about which living human populations might be “primitive” or “advanced” in form or behavior
- without genetic perspective, the phylogenetic relationships among the living apes were simply too subtle to discover
Allows for movement/running. Frees up hands for making/using tools and socializing
Bipedalism
Insulation, temperature control
Large body size
Nutrition, correlated with brain size
Carnivory
Name this class: Gracile (thin) faces Small braincases Large, protruding faces Females average 3'7 Males average 4'7
Gracile australopithecines
Name this class:
- larger and more robust skull, jaw, and teeth
- flat face
- large brow ridges
- large molars
Robust australopithecines
Name this class:
- Larger braincase
- taller
- reduction in jaw and teeth size
- less sexual dimorphism
Most recent hominids
How has Australopithecus afarensis (aka Lucy) contributed to the understanding of human origins?
She filled had features that were neither chimpanzee like nor human like that bridge the gap between them. As well as she was the first real evidence f bipedalism
Changes to the flu virus happens over time
Antigenic drift
Two different flu strains combine to infect the same cell
Examples:
Strains jump between animals and humans
Antigenic shifts
The strongest bacteria survive when an antibiotic is taken. If the antibiotic is not finished, that bacteria will reproduce and all bacteria will be strong
Natural selection
How organisms interact, global regional and local patterns, impact humans have in planets (quantitative science)
Ecology
What are the ecological currencies?
Matter
Energy
Individuals
A trait either increase without a decrease or it decrease without an increase
Trade offs
The representation of the biotic interactions in an ecosystem in which species (nodes) are connected by pair wise interaction (links)
Networks
The process by which a system, often biological or ecological, is modulated, controlled or changed by the product, out put or response it produces
Feedbacks
If a planet was ___ photon density on surface wouldn’t vary with latitude so temp would be constant, day and night will be equal
Little variation in seasons
Cylinder
No ____ causes no seasonal variation because every point is equal distance from the sun
No axial tilt
Input from the sun causes what to get warmer?
The areas near the equator because the sunlight is direct
What two ways does angle affect energy reaching the surface?
1) light intercepts LARGER surface areas near poles so the same amount of radiation spreads over large areas
2) because lights reaching poles hit at an angle, Rays must travel through more atmosphere dissipating more of energy leaving less to reach surface
1st step of Hadley’s cell
Warm air expands and cools forming CLOUDS!
2nd step of Hadley cell
Cold air holds less moisture so it condenses falls as RAIN in tropical regions
3rd step in Hadley cell
More air rises pushes dry air towards poles
4th step in Hadley cell
Dry air cools growing denser creating deserts at these latitudes
5th step in Hadley cell
Dry air warms as flows back to equator
6th step
Warm air picks up moisture and begins to rise completing the cell
Wind deflated by mountains and coasts, rotation of earth affect circulation patterns causing winds to be deflated to the right in N. Hemisphere and left to southern
Coriolis Effect
GPP
Gross Primary Production
NPP
Net primary production
GPP-R(energy lost from respiration
What are producers?
Plants and autotrophic organisms that gain their energy from the sun
What are consumers?
Heterotrophic organism that get their energy from producers and other consumers
What are decomposers
Organisms that feed in dead matter
Energy flows through and ecosystem while many _ cycle
Nutrients
Organisms constantly interacting with one another and their environment
Ecosystems
Energy input= energy output
Law of thermodynamics
Estimate plant growth rate is to measure change in abiotic group biomass
NPP= (m2-m1)/(t2/t2)
m is mass t is time
Primary production
_=NPP + Ra (Ra is respiration)
GPP
Photosynthesis is using endothermic reaction to combine CO2 and H2O to create Durham and oxygen. It is ____ so it requires energy
Nonspontaneous
Respiration is using eco thermos reaction it is ___ and yields energy to do work
Spontaneous
Plants _ at night and _ 2 _ during the day
Respite at night and photosynthesis at day
When are CO2 levels highest in the forest?
Highest at night lowest at day
_ has tracked co2 levels in the atmosphere since 1958, shows a steady increase
Keeling curve
_ of an ecosystem relates to energy available for transfer from producers to the tropic levels above it
Net primary productions
NPP
_ is how well the energy transfers. In real life it’s around 10%
Ecological efficiency
- limits the number of levels because it says than an organisms needs a certain amount of energy. Give the efficient of energy transfer the cane only be so many levels below the top predator
The top predator energy requirements
Look up a Sankey diagram or energy pyramid and predict it’s ecosystem
Internet
Draw Hadley cell
Check internet
Why does nutrient cycling matter to ecologists
It matter because if it is not monitored due to human pollution it can cause natural resource to be tainted
This calculates what?
Delta storage = inputs - outputs
Fluxes and cycling
When storage indicates change in amount of material stored in a pool, storage is positive when the tree ____ nitrogen and is negative when it ____ nitrogen
Gains
Loses
What are the components of the nitrogen cycle?
Fixation Nitrification Denitrification Immobilized Mineralization Leaching
Nitrogen can be carried out of the system by water this Is called _
Leaching
Atmospheric N2 (unavailable to plants due to triple bond) is _ by bacteria on plants or in soil and converted into ammonium
Fixed (fixation)
From here N can go through _ (conversion of N2 or NO) by bacteria and be release back into the atmosphere
Denitrification
N could also be taken in by plants after nitro fixation this Is called _
Immobilized
Ammonium is converted to nitrate and nitrate through _ by bacteria
Nitrification
After immobilized It is then released back into the soil by dead plants or herbivore poop through _
Mineralization
Draw nitrogen cycle normal: and for agricultural
System
Check google
Biological systems are _ completely closed
NEVER
Where is the largest source of nitrogen?
The atmosphere
Fixation =?
Denitrification =?
Input
Output
Process involving these transfers because same nutrients are constantly reused with the biosphere
Nutrient cycle
Rate depends on
Relative pool and flux size
Rate between nutrients within and between ecosystems
Tight cycling
The primary transporter if nutrients within and between ecosystems
Water cycling
Draw water cycle
Google it
What are 4 examples of nutrients output and input sources
- gaseous exchange
- physical weathering of rocks and soil
- animal migration
- surface water
What are examples of disturbances?
Fires, floods, and crop harvesting
How do disturbances affect the addition of nutrients to an ecosystem?
The effect the size of various fluxes and how tight cycle resulting in a gain or loss of nutrients
Generally reversible changes in an organism phenotype; allows the to respond to its environment to improve performance (i.e. heights)
Acclimation
Long term genetic response of population that improves performance
Adaption
_ of thermal performance curves represent the best results from certain temps
Peaks
Analyze growth temps
Notes
How would you design evidence to test for evidence of adaption or acclimation
- choose sibling organisms
- keep half control and have manipulated
- measure performance over a range of factors
- graph results assuming either their was acclamation or not
A quality or feature that characterizes an organism
Ex( feathers bird)
Attributes
How do organisms vary in their schedules?
Different stages of development: some reach adulthood in a shorter number of years than others. Different species have different life cycles
What is the mathematical relationship between birth, death rate and pop growth
B-d=r
Birth rate - death rate= pop growth
When pop growth r>0 pop is _
Increasing
When pop growth r=0 pop is
Stable
When pop growth r
Decreasing
Using data about a cohort, can we determine the survivorship curve for a pop
Yes use a life table
Life table variables
X=
Number of years (age)
Life table
nx =
Number of individuals at beginning of age class
Life table
bx
Age specific birth rate
Chance of female will give birth to one offspring during a define period
Life table
lx=
Survivorship (nx/n0) calculate by dividing the number of individuals alive at the start of the age class by the total In the cohort
Life table
mx
Or fx=
Fecundity (bx/nx)
Life table
lxmx
Average number of offspring produced by individuals of age x
Life table
R0=
Net reproductive rate: the average number of
Female offspring each female has in generation (sum of all lxmx )
Life table
T=
Average time from birth of a female to broths of her daughters
Survivorship curves
High age specific survival probability in early and middle life followed by rapid decline in survival in later life (ex mammals)
Type I
Survivorship curves
The greates mortality (lowest age specific survival) is experienced early in life with relatively low rates of death for those serving this bottleneck (species that produce a lot of offspring)
Type III
Survivorship curves
Inter midway between the other curves. Where roughly a constant mortality rate/survival probability is experienced regardless of age (ex birds and lizards)
Type II
How is survivorship useful? 3
- helps understand relationship between organisms and their environment
- allows for predictions of vulnerable age classes
- helps understand how pop are affected by changes to their environment
Nt
N pop size
t time
