Exam 2 STUDY GUIDE Flashcards
Where is the Masseter muscle?
Inserts along angle and lateral surface of mandibular ramus. Originates from the zygomatic arch.
Where is the Temporalis muscle?
Originates in the inferior temporal line and temporal fossa. Inserts at the lateral and medial surfaces of the coronoid processes.
Where is the Platysma muscle?
Inserts into the border of the lower mandible. Originates from superior and medial deltoid and pectoral regions.
Where is the sternocleidomastoid also known as the neck flexor?
Originates from manubrium of sternum and the clavicle. Inserts at the mastoid process of the temporal bone.
Where is the trapezius which is also known as the neck extensor?
Originates at the occipital bone, ligamentum nuchae, and T01-T12 spinous processes. Inserts on clavicle and scapula.
Where is the deltoid?
Originates the lateral part of clavicle, spine, and acromion process of clavicle. Inserts on the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus.
Where is the gluteal maximus, medius, and minimus?
Maximus- originates from posterior surface of ilium, sacrum, and coccyx. Inserts into iliotibial tract and gluteal tuberosity of the femur.
Identify the right and left atrium and ventricles.
Identify the left coronary artery branches. Includes interventricular artery and anterior ventricular artery.
Identify the thoracic aorta.
Identify the inferior vena cava.
Identify the artery supply to upper arm. This includes the brachiocephalic, subclavian, axillary, brachial, radial, and ulnar arteries.
BSA in solution BRU!
Identify the leg arteries. This includes the femoral, deep artery of thigh, anterior tibial, and posterior tibial arteries.
Identify the thoracic duct.
Identify lymph node histology.
Identify the four main locations of lymph nodes. Includes mediastinal, axillary, inguinal, and iliac nodes.
Identify the tonsils.
What are the characteristics, functions, locations, and component structures associated with cardiac muscle?
A. Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart.
B. Cardiac muscle is striated but involuntary.
C. Cells in cardiac muscle include myocytes, cardiomyocytes, and cardiocytes.
What are the characteristics, functions, locations, and component structures associated with smooth muscle?
A. No striations in smooth muscle since contractile proteins are not arranged like others.
B. Contains cells called myocytes, which are short and fusiform (tapered at ends)
C. Smooth muscle is involuntary.
What are the characteristics, functions, locations, and component structures associated with skeletal muscle?
A. Consists of striated cells called myofibers.
B. Produces voluntary movement by attaching to bone.
Describe the structure of a muscle fiber.
Muscle is organized into muscle fascicles all individually separated by CT called perimysium. Each fascicle has several muscle fibers separated by CT called endomysium. Each muscle fiber is an elongated cell with several nuclei. In each muscle fiber, there are myofibrils made of sarcomeres. Sarcomeres are the basic functional unit of muscle. Between myofibrils, there are lots of mitochondria and smooth ERs called sarcoplasmic reticulum.
The sarcoplasm is like the cytoplasm of the muscle and contains glycogen and myoglobin.
What is a sarcomere? How does it relate to Z-discs?
In each muscle fiber, there are myofibrils made of sarcomeres. Sarcomeres are the basic functional unit of muscle. Between myofibrils, there is lots of mitochondria, and smooth ER called sarcoplasmic reticulum here. The sarcoplasm is like the cytoplasm of the muscle and contains glycogen and myoglobin. The region from one Z disc to the next is called a sarcomere.
What is the basic action of sarcomeres in muscle contraction?
The dark A bands consist of a midregion called the H band where only thick filaments occur, flanked by even darker regions where the thick and thin filaments overlap. The light A bands are bisected by a thin dark line called a Z disc. The thin and thick filaments are anchored to the Z disc. The region from one Z disc to the next is called a sarcomere and is the functional unit of muscle contraction. When muscle contracts, the sarcomere becomes shorter and Z discs are pulled closer.
What are the components of a motor unit?
Skeletal muscle contracts when stimulated by a somatic motor neuron. The axon of each motor fiber leads to a few hundred muscle fibers but each muscle fiber receives only one nerve fiber. The nerve and muscle meet at a synapse called the neuromuscular junction. Each tip of the nerve fiber ends in a bulb called the synaptic knob which is nestled into the sarcolemma. A synaptic cleft separates the bulb from the sarcolemma. The synaptic knob contains synaptic vesicles filled with NT Ach which stimulates muscle to contract.
A motor unit consists of one motor neuron and multiple muscle fibers. They behave as a single functional unit. It is an advantage to have multiple motor units in a muscle to prevent fatigue. Smaller motor units are founds in the eyeball where there are 3-6 muscle fibers per nerve fiber. In contrast, the gastrocnemius has 1000 muscle fibers per nerve fiber.
How does blood supply change to muscle when exercising?
At rest, the muscle receives 1/4 of the hearts blood output. During exercise, the muscles receive 3/4 of the hearts blood. Muscle is very vascular.
What are the 4 principal muscle that form the abdominal wall? (external abdominal oblique, internal abdominal oblique, transverse abdominal, and rectus abdominis)
Rectus Abdominus- flexes the waist
Transverse Abdominal- compresses abdominal contents.
What are the important facial muscles in opening the mouth, kissing, blowing air out, and smiling?
Opening and closing the mouth, kissing, blowing out air- orbicularis oris
Frowning- Depressor anguli oris
What are the important muscles in the ‘up’ part of a situp?
Rectus abdominus, obliques, and transverse abdominus.
What are the important muscles used in a push-up?
Pectoralis major and minor. Deltoid major and minor.
What are the important muscles used when coming up from touching your toes?
The erector spinae extends the spine and is the main postural muscle that is divided into 3 groups of iliocostalis, longissimus, and spinalis. Deep back muscles include semispinalis which extends and rotates the vertebral column.
What happens to the diaphragm when it contracts?
When you breath, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward. This increases space in chest cavity allowing lungs to expand into it and pressure allows air to flow in. The rib cage goes upward and outwards when breathing in.
Where are the four SITS muscles of the rotator cuff? (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis).
These tendons insert at the proximal end of the humerus and form a sleeve around it.
What are the muscles that supinate the forearm?
Biceps brachii and supinator supinates forearm
What are the muscles that extend the elbow?
Triceps brachii extends the elbow.
What are the muscles that cross your legs when sitting?
Sartorius muscle
What are the components of the quadricep femoris?
The quadricep femoris extends the knee and conssits of 4 muscles in the anterior compartment: rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus intermedius.
LRM and I is underneath R!
What term refers to the thumb?
Thumb is referred to as pollex.
What is the function, shape, and contents of blood?
Functions include transport of gases, nutrients, and waste. Protection from blood loss and illness. Regulation of fluid levels, pH, and temperature.
Blood is 55% plasma and 45% formed elements which include erythrocytes, platelets, and five kinds of leukocytes. Erythrocytes are discoid shape and lack nucleus, mitochondria, and other organelles.
What are the names and properties of the 7 different formed elements?
- Erythrocytes- red blood cells
- Platelets- fragments of bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes that aid in blood clotting. They are phagocytic and have ameboid movement.
- Neutrophils- granulocytic. 60-70% of all WBCs. Phagocytizes bacteria and secretes antimicrobial chemicals
- Eosinophils- granulocytic. 2-4% of WBCs. Phagocytizes antigen-antibody complexes, allergens, and inflammatory chemicals. Secretes enzymes that destroy parasites.
- Basophils- granulocytic. <0.5% of WBCs. Secretes histamine to increase blood flow to tissues. Secretes heparin to promote mobility of WBCs by preventing clotting.
- Monocytes- agranulocytes. 3-8% of WBCs. Differentiate into macrophages. Phagocytize pathogens, dead neutrophils, and dead cells. Presents antigens to activate other cells of immune system.
- Lymphocytes- agranulocytes. 25-33% of WBCs. Increases in diverse infections and immune responses. Destroy cancer cells, coordinate actions of other immune cells, secrete antibodies, and serve in immune memory.
MEN BL for WBCs!!
What is hemostasis?
This is the cessation of bleeding and consists of several steps. When a blood vessel is injured, platelets release serotonin which vasoconstricts the vessel reducing blood loss. The platelets then adhere to the wall of vessel forming a plug. The platelets release clotting factors that convert fibrinogen to fibrin. Fibrin, platelets, and blood cells form the clot that seals the injury. Once crisis is over, platelets secrete growth factor that cause fibroblasts and smooth muscle to replace the damaged tissue.
What is thrombocytosis?
This is a high platelet count.
Which type of WBC secretes histamine?
Basophils secrete histamine which increases blood flow to tissues.
Which type of WBC is the most abundant?
Neutrophils are the most abundant WBCs.
What are the names and histology of the three layers of the heart wall?
- Epicardium/visceral peridcardium- thin outer layer consisting of simple squamous epithelium on top of areolar tissue.
- Myocardium- Bulk of wall made up of mostly cardiac myocytes.
- Endocardium- thin inner wall that is continuous with the endothelium of blood vessels.
Blood returning from the big toe would enter the heart through what vessels?
All blood from lower limbs enters the heart through the inferior vena cava and dumps into the right atrium.
Why is there is difference in muscularity between the atria and ventricles?
The atria have thin and flaccid walls because they only pump blood to the ventricles.
The right ventricle wall is moderately thick as it only pumps blood to the lungs. The left ventricle is super thick as it must pump blood to the whole body.
Which blood vessel carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the tissues of the body?
Oxygenated blood pushed from the left ventricle flows into the aortic valve to the ascending aorta and then to all tissues in the body.
What is the name and location of the pacemaker of the heart?
The SA/ sinoatrial node is the pacemaker of the heart. It is located in the right atrium.
What is the result of sympathetic nervous system stimulation to the heart?
Sympathetic nervous system activation results in increased force and rate of contraction and dilation of coronary arteries.
What are the functions and origins of coronary arteries. What is coronary circulation?
Coronary circulation begins with the right and left coronary arteries which are the first branches off the aorta.
The left coronary artery gives off the anterior interventricular branch that runs along the anterior interventricular septum. Supplies both ventricles and anterior interventricular septum. The circumflex branch continues around the left side and supplies left atrium and posterior wall of left ventricle.
The right coronary artery supply the right atrium and gives off into two branches, the right marginal branch and posterior interventricular branch.
What are the major differences between arteries and veins?
Arteries are resistance vessels that can withstand a high blood pressure. They are efferent vessels carrying blood away from heart to the tissues.
Veins are afferent vessels carrying blood towards to heart. Composed of three layers; tunica externa, tunica media, and tunica interna.
What and where is the aorta and its major branches?
The ascending aorta comes from the left ventricle. The aortic arch gives off branches that supply the head, neck, and upper limbs. The aortic arch gives off branches of brachiocephalic artery, left common carotid artery, and left subclavian artery.
The descending aorta is called the thoracic aorta and forks into the right and left common iliac arteries.
What are the major deep veins of the forearm?
The radial and ulnar veins are deep and give rise to the brachial veins. The brachial veins converge to join the axillary vein. The axillary vein becomes the subclavian vein. Subclavian vein meets internal jugular vein and becomes the brachiocephalic vein. The two brachiocephalic veins converge to form the superior vena cava which empties into the right atrium.
What are the major branches of the hepatic portal vein?
The hepatic portal system are vessels that drain the digestive organs and converge on the hepatic portal vein leading to the liver.
The superior and inferior mesenteric vessels drain from upper and lower GIT. Splenic vessel, pancreatic vessel, cystic vessel, and left and right gastric vessel.
What is the difference between continuous, fenestrated, sinusoid capillaries?
- Continuous capillaries- These occur in most tissues and have endothelial cells joined by tight junctions forming an uninterrupted tube.
- Fenestrated capillaries- endothelial cell riddled with holes called filtration pores. Allow for rapid passage of small molecules. Seen in small intestine and kidneys
- Sinusoids (discontinuous capillaries)- irregular, blood filled spaces in liver, bone marrow, and spleen. Here endothelial cells are separated by wide gaps. This is how formed elements enter the blood.
What is the immune system?
The immune system is a network of tissues, organs, and vessels working to defend the body against infection without hurting the cells within our own body. There is innate and adaptive immunity. Innate is general actions like inflammation and fever. Adaptive immunity is specific and remembered. There is humoral and cellular adaptive immunity.
What are the main functions of the lymphatic system?
Recover fluid lost from blood capillaries. Guard against pathogens. Absorb lipids from the small intestine.
What are the functions of B and T lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells?
B lymphocytes- when B cells are activated they differentiate into plasma cells and secrete antibodies. Some B cells become memory cells.
T lymphocytes- develop partly in the thymus and rely on thymus hormones for activity. There are 4 types of T cells; cytotoxic, helper, regulatory, and memory. Cytotoxic directly attack and kills cells infected with bacteria or cancer. Helper T cells respond to antigens and stimulate other cells to mount a response. Regulatory T cells prevent an excessive response. Memory T cells remember the antigen so if person is re-exposed the immune system acts quicker.
Macrophages are the antigen-presenting cells. They ingest and destroy tissue debris, dead neutrophils, bacteria, and other foreign material.
What formed element is most responsible for humoral immunity?
B cells!
What is the histology of the larger lymphatic vessels?
They are similar to veins, consisting of a tunica interna with valves, a tunica media with elastic fibers and smooth muscle, and a thin tunica externa.
What are the 2 largest lymphatic vessel and location of their termination?
The two collecting ducts are the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
The right lymphatic duct receives drainage from the right upper limb and right side of thorax and head and empties into the right subclavian vein.
The thoracic duct is larger and longer. It begins just below the diaphragm and ascends along the aorta and empties into the left subclavian artery. It drains all body below diaphragm, left upper limb, left side of head, neck, and thorax.
Where are germinal centers located?
Lymph nodes are little bean shaped organs. The parenchyma is divided into cortex and medulla. The cortex contains lymphatic nodules that develop germinal centers when pathogens invade. Germinal centers are where B cells multiply and differentiate into plasma cells.
What is the location and function of the thymus?
The thymus is a bilobed organ between the sternum and aortic arch. Keeps hold of developing lymphocytes and secretes hormones. Secretes chemical messengers promoting the development of T cells.
Which of the following muscles of facial expression is represented by letter B?
Orbicularis Oculi
Which of the following connective tissue layers covers an individual muscle cell?
Endomysium
What is the muscle of mastication indicated by letter A?
Temporalis
What is the structural/functional unit of skeletal muscle involved in contraction?
Sarcomere
Identify muscle B
Rectus Abdominus
Which muscle type exhibits intercalated discs?
Cardiac
Identify the muscle letter E.
Erector Spinae
Which labelled structure would be the suprahyoid muscles of the neck?
C
Which of these muscle types is not under the control of the autonomic nervous system?
Skeletal
Which muscle types exhibit rythmicity?
Smooth and Cardiac
Identify letter A.
Deltoid
Which of the following is not a member of the rotator cuff?
Teres major
The group of muscles at the base of the thumb represented by letter B is referred to as what?
Thenar muscles
Which nerve from the brachial plexus is responsbile for innervating the extensor muscles located primarily in the posterior compartments of the upper limb?
Radial nerve
What action is the group of muscles indicated by E responsible for?
Lateral rotation
To which bone of the foot does C attach to?
Calcaneus
Which of the following muscles is not found in the anterior compartment of the thigh?
Tensor fascia lata
Identify letter B.
Flexor digitorum brevis
Which of the following structures lies within the carpal tunnel, may become compressed, and cause carpal tunnel syndrome?
Median Nerve
What is the main action of the muscles located in the region indicated by letter A?
Adduction
Which layer of the blood vessel wall contains the endothelium?
Tunica intima
Which division of the circulatory system brings blood from the GIT to the liver for screening?
Portal
Which artery supplies the lower limb?
Femoral artery
Which two veins joins to form the superior vena cava?
Left and right brachiocephalic veins.
Which layer of the arterial wall exhibits modifications designed to allow these vessels to withstand extreme pressure?
Tunica media
Which division of the circulatory system is designed to reoxygenate the blood?
Pulmonary
Which structures allow blood to bypass the capillary bed?
Precapillary sphincters
Which two formed elements found in circulating blood contains no nucleus?
Red blood cells and platelets.
Which is the most common/ numerous form of white blood cells?
Neutrophils
Which component of the conduction system of the heart is called the pacemaker?
Sinoatrial node
Which of the following is not a tonsil?
Laryngeal
Lymph, as collected by lymphatic capillaries is:
Tissue fluid with dissolved wastes
Which specific feature of a lymph node makes it an effective filter?
Afferent and efferent lymph vessels enter and leave at opposite side of the node.
Which of the following lymphoid organs does not use lymphoid nodule as its structural and functional unit?
Thymus
Which component of the spleen is associated with T and B lymphocytes?
White pulp
Which lymphoid organ deals with filtering blood for antigens as well as dying red blood cells?
Spleen
Which specific cell is associated with the humoral antibody response in the immune system?
B lymphocyte
Which structure drains lymph from 3/4 of the body into the venous system?
C
Identify letter A.
Right lymphatic duct
