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Physiology > Exam 2: Skeletal/Integumentary Systems > Flashcards

Exam 2: Skeletal/Integumentary Systems Flashcards

1
Q

Describe bone formation.

A

Production of bone (osteocytes)
Osteoblasts produce and secrete hydroxyapatite and osteoid into the interstitial space. The two mix in the interstitial space, crystallize, and encase osteoblasts (calcification). Osteoblasts differentiate into osteocytes.

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2
Q

Hydroxyapatite

A

Produced and secreted by osteoblasts into the interstitial space
Made up of mostly calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide
Mixes with osteoid in the interstitial space, crystallizing and encasing osteoblasts in a process called calcification

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3
Q

Osteoid

A

Produced and secreted by osteoblasts into the interstitial space
Made up of mostly collagen fibers
Mixes with hydroxyapatite in the interstitial space, crystallizing and encasing osteoblasts in a process called calcification

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4
Q

Calcification

A

Hydroxyapatite and osteoid crystallize together and the crystallized mixture encases osteoblasts

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5
Q

Osteocytes

A

Bone cells formed from osteoblasts

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6
Q

How does production of bone contribute to calcium and blood phosphate homeostasis?

A

Decreases blood calcium and blood phosphate levels towards normal, stimulating osteoclasts

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7
Q

What process allows for the storage of calcium and phosphate in bone?

A

Bone production

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8
Q

Describe bone resorption.

A

Resorption of bone (osteocytes)
Osteoclasts secrete enzymes and acid into the interstitial space. Enzymes digest collagen (osteoid) component of bone; acid dissolves calcium (hydroxyapatite) component of bone.

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9
Q

How does resorption of bone contribute to calcium in blood phosphate homeostasis?

A

Increases blood calcium and blood phosphate levels, stimulating osteoblasts

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10
Q

Describe calcium and phosphate homeostasis.

A

When blood calcium or phosphate levels are high, the activity of osteoblasts increases. Calcium or phosphate moves from blood into bone when osteoblasts produce bone which decreases blood calcium and blood phosphate levels towards normal.
When blood calcium or phosphate levels are low, the activity of osteoclasts increases. Calcium or phosphate moves from bone into blood when osteoclasts resorb bone which increases blood calcium and blood phosphate levels towards normal.
Regulator: Parathyroid hormone

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11
Q

What is hemotopoiesis/hemopoiesis and where does it occur?

A

Process of red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet production that occurs in the red bone marrow

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12
Q

Describe red bone marrow, including locations.

A

Red bone marrow is red because of the oxygen-carrying pigment hemoglobin. It is in most infant bones and in many adult bones such as the sternum, ribs, vertebrae, pelvic girdle, clavicle, skull, and long bones.

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13
Q

Where does bone growth in length occur?

A

Growth in length, or the production of osteocytes that leads to lengthening of bones, occurs solely in long bones at the growth plate/epiphyseal plates.

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14
Q

Define bone metabolism.

A

Production and resorption of bone

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15
Q

What are the zones associated with growth in length of bones?

A

The epiphyseal plate contains the following: zone of resting cartilage, zone of proliferation, zone of hypertrophy, and zone of calcification. The epiphysis precedes and the bone of the diaphysis follows.

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16
Q

Describe the zone of resting cartilage.

A

Contains randomly arranged chondrocytes (cartilage cells)
Anchors epiphyseal plate to epiphysis
Chondrocytes divide and are pushed into the zone of proliferation

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17
Q

Describe the zone of proliferation.

A

Chondrocytes continue to divide and arrange in columns
Chondrocytes are pushed into the zone of hypertrophy
Chondrocytes begin to calcify (secrete collagen fibers and proteoglycans/chondroitin)

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18
Q

Describe the zone of hypertrophy.

A

Chondrocytes mature and enlarge
Chondrocytes continue to calcify
Chondrocytes are pushed into the zone of calcification

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19
Q

Describe the zone of calcification.

A

Calcification of Chondrocytes is completed
Chondrocytes die and leave a voided space into which osteoblasts enter and differentiate into osteocytes
Continues until all cartilage of growth plate is transformed into bone
Epiphyseal line remains as a remnant

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20
Q

How and where does growth in width of bones occur?

A

Occurs at the surface of all bones via the production of osteons
Initially a tunnel of bone with a blood vessel in its center is formed by osteoblasts differentiated into osteocytes
Subsequently, tunnel is filled with concentric layers/lamellae of bone as osteoblasts differentiate into osteocytes

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21
Q

List some factors that affect bone.

A

Hormones (growth, thyroid, sex, parathyroid), nutrition, and exercise

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22
Q

How do growth/thyroid hormones affect bones?

A

Promote bone production by increased mitosis of Chondrocytes and osteoblasts and increased protein synthesis (collagen)

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23
Q

What are the sex hormones and how do they affect bone?

A

Estrogen and testosterone promote bone production and apoptosis of osteoclasts

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24
Q

How do parathyroid hormones affect bones?

A

Promotes resorption of bone
Main hormone involved in calcium homeostasis
Increased release causes more bone resorption (raises blood calcium back towards normal)
Decreased release causes less bone resorption (lowers blood calcium back towards normal)

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25
Q

What are some nutrients needed by bone?

A

Calcium, Vitamin D3, Vitamin C

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26
Q

Why is calcium necessary for bones and what disease can occur when there is a shortage?

A

Necessary for the calcification of osteoblasts; leads to differentiation of osteoblasts into osteocytes
99% of calcium in the body is stored in bone
Osteoporosis

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27
Q

What is osteoporosis, who usually is affected, and how can it be prevented?

A

A decrease in the density of bone (“brittle bone”)
Decrease in the number of osteocytes
Typically due to low blood calcium levels (might also be due to lack of vitamin D3)
Osteocytes resorbed to increase blood calcium levels
Prevalent after age 50; women 70% of cases
Prevention: exercise and proper nutrition and estrogen therapy after menopause

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28
Q

Why is vitamin D3 necessary for bones and what disease can occur when there is a shortage?

A

Necessary for normal absorption of calcium from the intestines and for the production of hydroxyapatite
Osteomalacia (adults)/Rickets (children)

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29
Q

What is osteomalacia/rickets?

A

A decrease in the hardness of bone (soft bone)

Decrease in hydroxyapatite (not loss of osteocytes)

30
Q

Why is vitamin C necessary for bones and what disease can occur when there is a shortage?

A

Needed for the synthesis of collagen
Collagen needed to calcify osteoblasts and Chondrocytes
Low vitamin C in children can cause growth retardation

31
Q

How does exercise affect bones?

A

Stress on the bones from exercise promotes bone production

Proper nutrition is still needed

32
Q

What is peak bone mass? At what age is it reached? How is it lost?

A

The greatest density of bone one will attain during one’s lifetime
30-35 years of age, but can be attained at a later age with proper lifestyle
Up to 90% of peak is attained by age 20
Amount of bone produced up until this time is greater than amount resorbed
After peak, bone is lost at 1%/yr (3% w/ menopause)
Can be slowed with proper lifestyle
Amount of bone resorbed up until this time is greater than amount produced

33
Q

What are the functions of the integumentary system?

A 
Protection
Production of vitamin D
Temperature regulation
Excretion of nitrogenous waste
Sense organ
34
Q

How does the integumentary system protect the body?

A

Protects underlying structures from abrasion
Protection from pathogens and toxic substances
Prevents loss of interstitial fluid
Protection from ultraviolet rays (UVA and UVB)

35
Q

What could cause a loss of skin tissue and what are the ramifications of this?

A

3rd degree burn
Loss of skin tissue can lead to infection and/or interstitial fluid loss. Interstitial fluid loss would lead to loss of fluids from other compartments (such as loss of fluids from the blood) which would lower blood pressure

36
Q

What part of the skin protects from ultraviolet rays?

A

Melanin absorbs UV rays, which damage cellular structures
UV rays cause oxidation via free radical production
Free radicals damage DNA, proteins, and membranes

37
Q

How is melanin produced?

A

By melanocytes that are scattered within stratum hassle, making up 10% of it.
Melanocytes contain the enzyme, tyrosinase
Melanocytes are stimulated by UVA and UVB (mainly UVB)
Converts tyrosine (amino acid) into dopamine. Dopamine converted to melanin. Melanin stored in melanosomes.

38
Q

What are melanosomes?

A

Places where melanin is stored
Eumelanin-Brown and Black
Phenomelanin-Red

39
Q

What is albinism?

A

Genetic condition in which tyrosinase is not produced and melanocytes cannot produce melanin

40
Q

What is vitiligo?

A

Autoimmune disease that destroys melanocytes and results in irregular, pale patches of skin

41
Q

How does the skin protect from ultraviolet rays?

A

Melanin and the dermis

42
Q

How do UV rays affect the dermis?

A

Dermis composed mainly of collagen and elastin fibers which impart mechanical strength, flexibility, and elasticity
Loss or damage of collagen and elastin fibers causes wrinkles
UVA penetrates into dermal layer. Free radical production damages collagen and elastin fibers. Overexposure to UVA is one cause of wrinkles (aging is another)
UVB cannot penetrate into the dermal layer

43
Q

What is SPF?

A

Sun Protection Factor
Numerical system that indicates how well a sunscreen protects against UVB

No sunscreen: burns in one minute
SPF 40: burns in 40 minutes

44
Q

How is vitamin D produced in the skin?

A

From cholesterol in the stratum basale cells upon exposure to UVB (60 min exposure/wk is adequate; more for dark skin, less for light)
7-dehydrocholesterol converted to cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) which circulates to the liver and is converted to calcidiol (vitamin D3) and stored. Calcidiol circulates to kidneys and is converted to calcitriol, the most biologically active form of Vitamin D3.

45
Q

How do blood vessels regulate temperature?

A

Via blood vessels within the dermal layer (epidermis has no blood vessels)
When temperature increases, blood vessels dilate and blood (which carries heat) is diverted toward surface of skin. Heat loss from blood (body) is increased so body temperature is lowered towards normal
When temperature decreases, blood vessels constrict and blood (which carries heat) is diverted away from surface of skin. Heat loss from blood (body) is decreased so body temperature is increased towards normal

46
Q

How does the skin regulate temperature?

A

Via blood vessels within the dermal layer or via sweat glands

47
Q

How do sweat glands regulate temperature?

A

Sweat is continuously produced (1qt/day) and secreted onto skin. Evaporation of sweat helps cool the body to maintain body temp. Body is continuously cooled due to heat generated by metabolism. An increase of body temperature increases production and secretion of sweat

48
Q

How is nitrogenous waste excreted from skin?

A

Via sweat glands
Sweat contains small amounts of the nitrogenous wastes ammonia and urea. Other constituents of sweat are water and electrolytes (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl)

49
Q

What indicates cystic fibrosis and how is it tested?

A 
High level of Na and Cl (mainly Cl)
Increased 2 to 5 times above normal 
Sweat test (pilocarpine iontophoresis) used to measure Cl concentrations 
15 mE g/L-normal
30 no CF
45 possible
60 probable
>60 definite
50
Q

What are the sensory receptors in skin and to what do they respond?

A

Free nerve ending: pain, temp, touch, tickle
Hair: (follicle) light touch
Meissner’s corpuscle: light touch
Merkel’s disk: light touch
Pacinian corpuscle: deep pressure
Ruffini’s corpuscle: deep pressure, constant touch/pressure

51
Q

What is one of the most serious and frequent problems that affect skin?

A

Burns

52
Q

What method is frequently used to determine the extent of a burn injury?

A 
Rule of nines
Head-9%
Front of upper torso-18%
Back of upper torso-18%
Entire leg-18%
Front or back of leg-9%
Entire arm-9%
Front or back of arm-4.5%
Genitalia-1%
53
Q

How is the severity of a burn determined?

A

By the number of tissue layers involved

54
Q

Describe a first degree burn.

A

Partial thickness burn
Epidermis is injured, no blister, inflammation
Blood vessels dilate which makes skin look red; attempts to dissipate heat
Will heal naturally

55
Q

Describe a second degree burn.

A

Partial thickness burn
Epidermis and part of dermis are injured, often blisters, inflammation
Normally will heal naturally

56
Q

Describe a third degree burn.

A

Full thickness burn
Epidermis and dermis are injured
Hypodermis, ligaments, tendons, muscle, bone can also be injured
Damage deep to the skin is considered fourth degree burn
Skin appears white (loss of melanin and blood supply) or blackened (dead)
Insensitive to pain at affected area due to loss of nerve cell endings; surrounding areas can be very painful
Fluid loss and infection can become very serious problems
Will not heal naturally. Skin graft (autograft-skin from unburied region of affected person; or homografts-skin from a donor) or artificial skin

57
Q

Describe psoriasis.

A

Inflammation marked by pink/red lesions with silvery scaling
Pruritis (itching) often present
Possibly autoimmune
Not contagious
Treatment: anti-inflammatory creams, immunosuppressant medications

58
Q

Describe dermatitis.

A

Eczema, poison ivy

Inflammation marked by pruritis and red lesions
Associated with increased sensitivity and allergy
Not contagious
Treatment: anti-inflammatory creams, allergy creams, avoidance

59
Q

Describe urticaria.

A

Hives

Inflammation of blood vessels under the skin
Pruritis (itching) often present followed by eruption of skin into red welts
Associated with increased sensitivity and allergy
Not contagious
Treatment: anti-inflammatory creams, allergy creams, avoidance

60
Q

Describe dermatophytosis.

A

Ringworm

Fungal infection
Spread by direct and indirect contact
Affects all parts of body (athletes foot; thick, yellow nails)
Treatment: anti fungal creams and medications

61
Q

Describe impetigo.

A

Bacterial infection that forms lesions typically around the mouth, nose, or neck
Spread by direct and indirect contact
Treatment: antibiotics

62
Q

Describe warts.

A

Elevated skin lesion due to abnormal cell division
Caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV)
Spread by direct and indirect contact
Treatment: salicylic acid, cryotherapy (freezing), surgery with plantar warts

63
Q

Describe Herpes Zoster.

A

Red, swollen vesicles in a single dermatome rupture and crust
Caused by the Vericella zoster virus of chickenpox
Compromised immune system, stress, and aging are leading factors
Spread by direct and indirect contact; would cause chickenpox not shingles
Treatment: antiviral drugs along with anti-inflammatory creams and drugs

64
Q

Describe herpes.

A

Lesions caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV)
Study show that approximately 75% of adults have oral herpes (HSV-1)
Most people did not exhibit signs or symptoms of HSV-1
Study show that approximately 30% of adults have genital herpes (HSV-2)
Some people do not exhibit signs or symptoms of HSV-2
Spread by direct contact
Treatment: antiviral drugs

65
Q

What causes brittle nails?

A

Can be due to cold, dry conditions or over exposure to water or thyroid disease

66
Q

What causes yellow nails?

A

Can be due to fungal infection, respiratory disease or diabetes

67
Q

What causes white spots?

A

Most often due to trauma to nail body or could be indication of zinc deficiency

68
Q

What causes pitting?

A

Can be due to psoriasis beneath the nail body

69
Q

What causes concave nails?

A

Can be due to iron deficiency (can take some time to manifest itself)

70
Q

What causes pale nails?

A

Can be due to aging, anemia, or cardiovascular disease

71
Q

What causes dark lines on nails?

A

Can be due to trauma (caused by bruising) or melanoma

Physiology (3 decks)

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