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Anatomy And Physiology Lecture > Exam 2 Review (chapters 5 And 6) > Flashcards

Exam 2 Review (chapters 5 And 6) Flashcards

1
Q

What is the resting membrane potential and how is it set?

A

-70mV. It is set by K+ leaving the cell through potassium leakage channels, and K+ being a positive ion leaving the cell causes the inside of the cell to become more negative

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2
Q

What would happen if Na+ leakage channels were more numerous or more effective than K+ leakage channels

A

Resting membrane potential would be less negative, possibly even positive

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3
Q

First distinct layer of the skin

A

Epidermis

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4
Q

Second distinct layer of the skin

A

Dermis

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5
Q

Describe the epidermis

A

Epithelial tissue, no blood vessels, small layer

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6
Q

Describe the dermis

A

Connective tissue, has blood vessels, large layer

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7
Q

Layer that surrounds muscles

A

Hypodermis/superficial fascia

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8
Q

What are the functions of the hypodermis/superficial fascia

A

Stores fat, anchor for skin, shock absorber, insulation

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9
Q

Most abundant epidermis cells with lots of desmosomes and tight junctions

A

Keratinocytes

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10
Q

Spider shape cells that make a pigment important for UV protection

A

Melanocytes

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11
Q

Cells that provide an immune function

A

Dendritic cells

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12
Q

Cells that sense pain, temperature, and touch

A

Tactile cells

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13
Q

Where are keratinocytes found

A

In the epidermis

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14
Q

Where are melanocytes found

A

In the epidermis

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15
Q

Where are dendritic cells found

A

In the epidermis

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16
Q

Where are tactile cells found

A

In the epidermis

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17
Q

What are the 5 layers of the epidermis, superficial to deep

A
  1. Stratum corneum
  2. Stratum lucidum (only thick skin)
  3. Stratum granulosum
  4. Stratum spinosum
  5. Stratum basale
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18
Q

What is the function of the stratum basale

A

Germination

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19
Q

Describe the stratum basale

A

Single layer of stem cells that create new cells

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20
Q

What kind of cells does the stratum basale give rise to

A

Most specialize into keratinocytes, 10-25% are melanocytes

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21
Q

Describe the stratum spinosum

A

Spikes are pre-keratin tonofilaments, lots of dendritic cells, several layers thick

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22
Q

Function of stratum spinosum

A

Spikes are anchored to desmosomes to resist tension

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23
Q

Describe the stratum granulosum

A

1-5 layers thick, has keratohyaline (keratin precursor) and lamellar (produce glycoside, water resistant)

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24
Q

What is keratohyaline

A

The keratin precursor

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25
Q

What are lamella

A

Granules that produce glycolipids for water resistance

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26
Q

What is the function of the stratum granulosum

A

Starts the process of keratinization, prevents water loss from lipids and tight junctions,

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27
Q

Describe the stratum lucidum

A

Only thick skin has the stratum lucidum, looks translucent

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28
Q

Describe the stratum corneum

A

Most superficial layer, 20-30 layers thick, made up of dead, anucleated, keratin-filled cells

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29
Q

Most superficial layer of dermis

A

Papillary layer (“nipple”)

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30
Q

Layer underneath papillary layer

A

Reticular layer

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31
Q

Describe the papillary layer

A

Sensory receptors, blood vessels, loose aereolar connective tissue

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32
Q

Describe the reticular layer

A

Dense irregular connective tissue, makes up 80% of thickness

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33
Q

What pigment does melanin provide

A

Reddish yellow to brown

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34
Q

What pigment does carotene provide

A

Yellow to orange

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35
Q

Where does the carotene pigment accumulate

A

In the corneum

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36
Q

What are tonofilaments

A

Keratin-containing intermediate filaments

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37
Q

One of the functions of skin is to produce the vitamin D precursor, which layer is responsible and why

A

Stratum granulosum, you want active cells

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38
Q

Which skin layer releases glycolipid effectively walling them off from nutrients in deeper tissue layers

A

Stratum granulosum

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39
Q

Which is the thickest layer of skin

A

Stratum corneum

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40
Q

Which layer of skin produces all the other layers

A

Stratum basale

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41
Q

Function of Myoepithelial cells around secretory glands

A

Contract in order to aide in secretion

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42
Q

Two sweat glands that secrete through exocytosis

A

Eccrine and apocrine glands

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43
Q

Official term for glands that secrete by exocytosis

A

Merocrine glands

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44
Q

Composition of sweat from eccrine glands

A
  1. 99% water
  2. Salt
  3. Traces of metabolic waste
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45
Q

pH of sweat

A

4-6

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46
Q

Function of eccrine glands

A

Temperature regulation

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47
Q

How abundant are apocrine glands

A

A couple thousand

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48
Q

Here are apocrine glands found

A

Axillary, rectal, and genital regions

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49
Q

What do apocrine glands empty into

A

Hair follicles

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50
Q

Composition of sweat from apocrine glands

A
  1. 99% water
  2. Salt
  3. Traces of metabolic waste
  4. Lipid and protein substances (specific to apocrine glands)
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51
Q

When are apocrine glands active

A

At puberty

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52
Q

Function of apocrine glands

A

Sex scent gland

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53
Q

What are the two modified apocrine glands

A

Ceruminous glands and mammary glands

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54
Q

What do ceruminous glands secrete

A

Ear wax or cerumin

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55
Q

What do mammary glands secrete

A

Milk

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56
Q

Type of gland that explodes to release its product

A

Sebaceous/oil glands

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57
Q

Official name for glands that explode to release their product

A

Halocrine glands

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58
Q

Where are sebaceous/oil glands found

A

Everywhere except thick skin

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59
Q

What do sebaceous/oil glands secrete

A

Oily substance called sebum

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60
Q

What forces sebum to the surface

A

Arrector pili muscles

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61
Q

What happens when the arrector pili muscles force sebum to the surface (function of sebum)

A

Softens and lubricates hair and skin, and is also bacteriacidal

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62
Q

When are sebaceous/oil glands more active

A

During puberty

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63
Q

Six functions of the skin

A

Protection, temperature regulation, blood reservoir, cutaneous sensation, metabolic function, excretion

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64
Q

Three categories of skin protection

A

Chemical, physical, and biological

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65
Q

Chemical protection methods of the skin

A
  1. Acid mantle = prevents bacterial growth
  2. Defensins = poke holes in bacteria
  3. Melanin = UV protection for DNA
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66
Q

Physical protection methods of the skin

A

Corneum = brick and mortar layer, cells are the bricks and glycolipids are the mortar

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67
Q

Biological protection methods of the skin

A

Dendritic cells and macrophages = run the immune responses, both capable of phagocytosis

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68
Q

Two types of temperature regulation

A

Insensible perspiration and sensible perspiration

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69
Q

What is insensible perspiration

A

General perspiration at normal temperatures

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70
Q

What is sensible perspiration

A

Required when it is hot, blood vessels dilate when hot and vasoconstrict once cool

71
Q

Five things that can penetrate the skin

A
  1. Lipid soluble substances
  2. oleoresins
  3. Organic solvents
  4. Salts and heavy metals
  5. Selective drugs
72
Q

Example of lipid soluble substance that can penetrate the skin

A

O2/CO2/fat soluble vitamins and steroids

73
Q

Example of oleoresins that can penetrate the skin

A

Poison ivy/oak

74
Q

Example of organic solvents that can penetrate the skin

A

Acetone and paint thinner

75
Q

Example of salts and heavy metals that can penetrate the skin

A

Lead and Mercury

76
Q

Example of selective drugs that can penetrate the skin

A

Nitroglycerin

77
Q

How is the skin a blood reservoir

A

5% of total blood volume held in the skin

78
Q

How is the skin a cutaneous receptor

A

Has exteroceptors that detect stimuli outside the body

79
Q

Main metabolic function of the skin

A

Converts cholesterol to vitamin D precursor

80
Q

Excretory function of the skin

A

Excretes things such as urea, Uric acid, and ammonia through sweat

81
Q

What is the gross anatomy of bone? (2 parts)

A

External bone is made up of compact bone, and internal bone is made of spongey bone

82
Q

What is spongey bone made of

A

Trabeculae

83
Q

What fills bones

84
Q

What is the outside lining of of compact bone called

A

Periosteum

85
Q

What is the inside lining of compact bone called

86
Q

Structure of short, irregular, or flat bones

A

Thin plates of spongey bone (diploe) covered by compact bone

87
Q

5 aspects of long bone structure

A

Shaft, ends, membrane, metaphyses, and the epiphysial plate/line

88
Q

What is the shaft of a long bone called

89
Q

What is the Structure of the diaphysis

A

Compact collar filled with marrow

90
Q

What is the structure of the epiphyses

A

Compact shell containing spongey bone

91
Q

What membrane lines the outside of the long bone

A

Periosteum

92
Q

What membrane lines the inside of the long bone

93
Q

What are the metaphyses

A

The broad part junction between the diaphysis and epiphyses

94
Q

What is the structure of the epiphysial plate

A

Cartilage area for growth, also called the growth plate

95
Q

How many layers does the periosteum have

96
Q

What are the layers of the periosteum

A

Outer layer - dense irregular connective tissue
Inner layer - osteogenic layer

97
Q

What type of cells are in the periosteum

A

Osteoprogenitor cells, osteoclasts, and osteoblasts

98
Q

What secures the periosteum to the bone

A

Perforating/Sharpys fibers

99
Q

What is the main function of the endosteum

A

It is an osteogenic layer

100
Q

5 types of cells in bone

A
  1. Osteoprogenitor (osteogenic) cells
  2. Osteoblasts
  3. Osteoclasts
  4. Osteocytes
  5. Bone lining cells
101
Q

Function of osteoprogenitor (osteogenic cells)

A

Mitotically active stem cells

102
Q

Location of osteoprogenitor (osteogenic) cells

A

Periosteum and endosteum

103
Q

What do osteogenic cells become

A

Osteoblasts

104
Q

Function of osteoblasts

A

Bone forming cells

105
Q

What do osteoblasts secrete

A

Ostoid = Collagen and Ca+ binding proteins

106
Q

When surrounded by matrix, what do osteoblasts become

A

Osteocytes

107
Q

What is the function of osteocytes

A

Monitor and maintain the matrix

108
Q

What are the 3 reasons for osteocytes monitoring and maintaining the matrix (why would there be damage to the matrix)

A
  1. Stress
  2. Ca+ needs
  3. Injury
109
Q

Function of osteoclasts

A

Break down bones for normal bone remodeling

110
Q

What do osteoclasts come from

A

Macrophages

111
Q

What is the ruffled border on osteoclasts

A

Secretion of enzymes that walls off adjacent cells

112
Q

What is the function of bone lining cells

A

Lines bone surfaces where remodeling occurs

113
Q

What are the 3 microscopic aspects of bone

A
  1. Osteon
  2. Lamellae
  3. Canal
114
Q

What are osteons

A

Structural unit of bone

115
Q

What is the structure of lamellae

A

Hollow cylinders that are layered and run parallel to long axis of bone, direction of collagen fibers switch with each lamella

116
Q

Two types of canals in bone

A

Central canal and perforating/volkmans canal

117
Q

What does the central canal contain

A

Blood vessels and nerves

118
Q

What is the structure of perforating/volkmans canals

A

Run at right angles and connect to medullary canal with central canal

119
Q

What cell is responsible for the pigment that protects from UV

A

Melanocytes

120
Q

Epithelial layer that gives rise to all other strata

A

Basale layer

121
Q

Flared portion of bone between shaft and ends

A

Metaphyses

122
Q

Structural unit of bone

123
Q

Is the hypodermis a layer of the skin

124
Q

Two types of lamellae not associated with osteons

A

Circumferential and interstitial

125
Q

Where are the circumferential lamellae

A

Around the circumference of the bone

126
Q

Where are the interstitial lamellae

A

Between osteons

127
Q

Microscopic anatomy of spongey bone

A

Appears poorly organized and has trabeculae

128
Q

Microscopic anatomy of trabeculae

A

Forms along lines of stress to help resist tension, no osteons,

129
Q

Structure of trabeculae

A

Irregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi, capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients

130
Q

Two chemical compositions of bone

A

Organic and inorganic

131
Q

Organic composition of bone

A

Cells, ground substance, and fibers

132
Q

Inorganic composition of bone

A

Salts (calcium phosphates or hydroxyapatites)

133
Q

What is the function of the inorganic composition of bone

A

Provide hardness and resistance to compression

134
Q

Ossification/osteogenesis starts from 2 things

A

Cartilage or fibrous matrix

135
Q

Two types of ossification

A

Endochondrial and intramembranous

136
Q

What is endochondrial ossification

A

Ossification where bone forms by replacing cartilage

137
Q

What is intramembranous ossification

A

Ossification that starts from a fibrous matrix

138
Q

First phase of endochondrial ossification

A

Mesenchymal cells become committed to becoming chondrocytes

139
Q

Second phase of endochondrial ossification

A

Mesenchymal cells condense into nodules and differentiate into chondrocytes

140
Q

Third phase of endochondrial ossification

A

Chondrocytes proliferate rapidly to form bone model, begin to secrete matrix

141
Q

Fourth phase of endochondrial ossification

A

Chondrocytes hypertrophy and continue to secrete matrix

142
Q

Fifth phase of endochondrial ossification

A

Blood vessels invade cartilage, chondrocytes die by apoptosis, blood brings in osteoblasts that start replacing cartilage with bone

143
Q

Structure of cartilage

A

Lots of water in matrix, spring back properties, capable of accommodating cell division

144
Q

Composition of cartilage

A

Chondrocytes/blasts in lacunae and collagen fibers

145
Q

What is cartilage surrounded by

A

Perichondrium

146
Q

What is the perichondrium

A

Collar of connective tissue, specifically dense irregular CT that has blood vessels and nerves

147
Q

Types of cartilage on the skeleton

A

Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage

148
Q

Where is hyaline cartilage found

A

Articular surfaces (joints), costal areas, respiratory areas (larynx), supporting structural, and nasal structures

149
Q

Where is elastic cartilage found

A

Ear and epiglottis

150
Q

Where is fibrocartilage found

A

Discs of knee joints and vertebrae

151
Q

Two types of growth of cartilage

A

Appositional growth and interstitial growth

152
Q

What is appositional growth of cartilage

A

Grows from outside to inside, secretes matrix along boundary of existing cartilage

153
Q

What is interstitial growth of cartilage

A

Grows from inside to outside, cells inside cartilage (deep) secrete matrix in existing cartilage

154
Q

How many functions are there of bone

155
Q

Name the 7 functions of bone

A
  1. Framework of support
  2. Organ protection
  3. Anchorage, levels for muscles
  4. Mineral storage, Ca+ and phosphate
  5. Hematopoiesis, blood cell formation
  6. Triglyceride/fat storage
  7. Hormone production, osteocalcium
156
Q

Are bones an organ

157
Q

What types of tissue are bones made of

A

Epithelial, CT, muscle tissue, nervous tissue

158
Q

First phase of intramembranous ossification

A

Ossification center develops in fibrous CT membrane (template), mesenchymal cells cluster, differentiate in osteoblasts

159
Q

Second phase of intramembranous ossification

A

Osteoblasts secrete osteoid on CT (membrane template) and osteoid becomes calcified (process of adding salts, Ca+, and phosphate)

160
Q

Third phase of intramembranous ossification

A

Spongey bone is formed, as osteoid is laid down around blood vessels, condensation of external portion, becomes periosteum

161
Q

Fourth phase of intramembranous ossification

A

Trabeculae are remodeled into compact bone to make “sandwich” and spongey bone is filled with marrow

162
Q

Where does the growth of long bone occur

A

Epiphysial plate

163
Q

5 zones of the epiphysial plate (from top to bottom)

A
  1. Resting zone
  2. Proliferation zone
  3. Hypertrophic zone
  4. Calcification zone
  5. Ossification zone
164
Q

What is happening in the resting zone of the ep. plate

A

Inactive chondrocytes

165
Q

What is happening in the proliferating zone of the ep. plate

A

Cell division of chondrocytes

166
Q

What is happening in the hypertrophic zone of the ep. plate

A

Chondrocytes hypertrophy, get bigger, more volume, lacunae erode leaving empty space

167
Q

What is happening in the calcification zone of the ep. plate

A

Cartilage is being calcified, chondrocytes die (apoptosis), leave spicules (template of calcified cartilage), blood vessel invasion

168
Q

What is happening in the ossification zone of the ep. plate

A

Invaded by osteoblasts/osteoclasts, erode then cover by blood vessels

169
Q

When does the growth plate close for females? For males?

A

Females is 18, males is 21

170
Q

Three hormones that effect bone growth

A

Growth hormone, thyroid hormone, and estrogen/testosterone

171
Q

Bone remodeling happens for 3 reasons, what are these reasons

A

Calcium homeostasis, stress, and repair

172
Q

How often is compact bone replaced

A

Every 10 years

173
Q

How often is spongey bone replaced

A

Every 5 years

Anatomy And Physiology Lecture (2 decks)

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