Exam 2 Review Flashcards
Is made by catabolic reactions and provides the energy for anabolic reactions.
Adenosine Triphosphate ATP
Also known as immunoglobulins, these protein molecules secreted by plasma cells; and can activate complement cascades, neutralize antigens and promote phagocytosis of targeted antigens.
Antibody breakdown: (Antibodies
Combine energy and molecules to build new substances.
Anabolic Pathways
Also known as biosynthetic reactions, involve dehydration synthesis reactions and tend to be endergonic. Amino acids build proteins, nucleotides, build nucleic acids, and simple sugars build polysaccharides.
Anabolic Reactions
Immune evasion tactic used by a pathogen in which it may conceal antigenic features so the immune system doesn’t quickly mount an attack; accomplished in a number of ways, such as pathogen coating itself with hose molecules, so it may masquerade as part of the body.
Antigen Masking
Has a dual role and can be used for both breaking down and building substances.
Amphibolic Pathway
Also considered a virulence factor because it enhances the ability of bacteria to cause disease. It can also protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells, such as macrophages.
Capsule protection
Break down substances and release energy.
Catabolic Pathways
Are generally hydrolytic and exergonic, example a cell breaking down sugars into carbon dioxide and water.
Catabolic Reactions
A collection of reactions that extract energy from foods using redox reactions and then transfer that energy into the bonds of ATP; occurs through the combined efforts of glycolysis, an intermediate step, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
Cellular Respiration
Refers to the general flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein; the revised central dogma takes into account that RNA can be used as a template for DNA. The two-step process, transcription and translation, by which the information in genes flows into proteins: DNA to RNA to protein.
Central Dogma
Effects that occur as pathogens establish themselves in the host and damage host cells; these effects can kill the cell (Cytocidal), or simply damage it (non-cytocidal).
Cytopathic Effects
A form of transmission in which the host comes into physical contact with the source of the pathogen.
Direct Contact Transmission
An imbalance between the types of organism present in a person’s natural microflora, especially that of the gut, thought to contribute to a range of conditions of ill health.
Dysbiosis
Also called respiratory chains; these chains are collections of factors that pass electrons to one another in a series of redox reactions to generate a proton gradient that fuels the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP; electron transport chains can be aerobic or anaerobic.
Electron Transport System
Describes infections that are routinely detected in a population or region.
Endemic
A scenario where the pathogen comes from the host’s own body.
Endogenous Source
The lipid. A region of lipopolysaccharide; poisonous to us and other animals and is mainly released by Gram-negative bacteria when they die.
Endotoxins
Bacterial exotoxins that target the intestines; ingested enterotoxins may trigger intestinal inflammation that prevents water from absorbing into the intestine, causing diarrhea and abdominal pain; enterotoxins may also be emetic (trigger vomiting).
Enterotoxins
Are protein catalysts that help chemical reactions occur under cellular conditions.
Enzymes
A branch of medicine that aims to understand prevent illness in communities.
Epidemiology
A source of infecting pathogen that is external to the host.
Exogenous Source
Toxic soluble proteins made by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria that affect a wide range of cells; these protein toxins are often named based on the organism that makes toxin or the type of cells the toxin targets; usually classified into three main families based on their mode of action.
Exotoxins
An inanimate object that can harbor pathogens; examples include doorknobs, used needles, toys in a busy childcare center, etc.
Fomite
The genetic make-up of an organism.
Genotype
Also called the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway; the first stage in aerobic and anaerobic carbohydrate catabolism in which energy is extracted from carbohydrates. Consists of ten reactions that occur in two basic stages: Energy investment stage and payoff stage. It also does not require oxygen. Requires glucose, a six carbon sugar and initial investment of energy (2 ATP) to get the reaction going. The six-carbon glucose is split to make two molecules of pyruvic acid. The 2 NAD+ are reduced to 2NADH. The net gain is only two molecules of ATP molecules of glucose that is oxidized.
Glycolysis
Also known as nosocomial infections; an infection that a patient develops while receiving care in a healthcare setting.
HAI
Liver toxic; term applied to antimicrobial drugs that can induce liver damage and are leading agents of drug induced liver injury.
Hepatotoxins
Occurs when genetic information is passed between cells by a process independent of cell division, and therefore separate from reproduction.
Horizontal Gene Transfer
Dynamic give-and-take between microbe and host; not always damaging, in fact many host-microbe interactions are helpful.
Host-Microbe Interactions
Term describing how many cells (bacterial, fungal, or parasitic) or virions are needed to establish an infection in 50 percent of exposed susceptible host; the more infectious the pathogen is, the lower its ID50.
Infectious Dose
Also called citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle; this cycle is a series of redox reactions and decarboxylation reactions that begins with the formation of citric acid from oxaloacetic acid and the acetyl-CoA made in the intermediate step; the Krebs cycle produces some ATP and a lot of the reduced cofactors NADH and FADH.
Krebs Cycle
An example of an inducible operon that is induced, or actively transcribed, only when lactose is present and the cell’s preferred food, glucose, is absent.
Lactose Operon
Vector organism that spreads disease without being integral to a pathogen’s life cycle.
Mechanical Disease Vector
Collectively refers to the chemical reactions that organisms use to break down substances to release energy, as well as to reactions that use the released energy to build new substances. Chemical reactions that organisms use to break down substances to release energy as well as reactions that use the released energy to build new substances.
Metabolism
Chemical, physical or biological agents that increase that rate of mutation.
Mutagens
Errors in genetic material that can lead to changes in a protein’s primary structure; changes in the genetic material of a cell or virus.
Mutations
A coenzyme that serves as an electron carrier and that is made from the B vitamin niacin. When it is reduced it is referred to as NADH. During oxidization it is known as NAD+.
NAD
Kidney toxic. A term applied to antimicrobial drugs that include a long list of agents, with aminoglycosides being prevalent on the list.
Nephrotoxins
The basic building blocks of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. They have three basic parts: a phosphate, a sugar, and one nitrogen base that can be either adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil.
Nucleotides
A worldwide breakout of disease.
Pandemics
The physiological and physical traits of an organism.
Phenotype
Any site that a pathogen uses to enter the host.
Portals of Entry
Any site that a pathogen uses to exit the host.
Portals of Exit
Fever-inducing agents; many bacterial toxins act as pyrogens.
Pyrogens
Involves oxidation and reduction reactions. Oxidizing agents carry out oxidation reactions. Reducing agents carry out reduction reactions.
Redox Reactions
During DNA replication, the immediate point where unwinding occurs and new DNA is built.
Replication Fork
The animate or inanimate habitat where the pathogen is naturally found.
Reservoir of the Infectious Agent
Objective indicators of disease that can be measured or verified; common signs include fever, rash, or blood in stool.
Sign
Indicators of disease that are sensed by the patient and are subjective rather than precisely measurable pain, fatigue, and nausea are examples.
Symptom
Describes a disease that causes occasional infections in a population.
Sporadic
Include a variety of bacterial toxins such as staphylococcal enterotoxins, staphylococcal toxic shock toxin, and streptococcal exotoxins that generate the features of scarlet fever. They are especially potent T helper cell activators. They overstimulate the immune system to cause massive inflammation that harms the host; they also tend to cause fever (pyrogens).
Super Antigens
The first stage of protein synthesis, in which genes in DNA are copied into a new format of RNA.
Transcription
The second stage of protein synthesis, a process that entails reading mRNA to build proteins.
Translation
The preference of a pathogen for a specific host and even a specific tissue within the host.
Tropism
The ways pathogens overcome our defenses. They include features that help microbes adhere to host cells, invade host tissues, acquire nutrients, and evade immune defenses. They also include toxins, substances with diverse ways of thwarting the immune system or damaging our cells. Classic virulence factors include pathogens toxicity, aggressiveness, and transmission.
Virulence Factor
A disease or infection that is passed from animals to humans.
Zoonotic
Pharmalogical additives that enhance the body’s natural immune response to an antigen; often added to vaccines to encourage antigen uptake and processing by antigen-presenting cells.
Adjuvant
The type of communal immunity that occurs when a pathogen won’t find enough suspectable people in the community to persist, even if a small number of individuals there remain unvaccinated; herd immunity allows nonvaccinated individuals, such as premature babies and immune-compromised patients, to still reap the protective benefits of immunization provided a sufficient percentage of the rest of the population is vaccinated.
Herd Immunity
Regions of the pathogen genome that encode toxins, virulence factors, resistance mechanisms.
Pathogenicity Islands
Sensitive enough to detect a single pathogen in a sample, creates billions of copies of a target gene in just a few hours. Required to perform a PCR includes a thermocycler.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
A modified method that uses fluorescence imaging to visualize DNA copies as they are made-making the data “real time”, or immediate. This method is sometimes called quantitative PCR because it can quantify, or measure, how many copies of a particular gene were present in a sample from the start of the reaction.
PCR
Procedure that originate in China in the 1400s to combat smallpox; in this procedure, the practitioner blew a powder made from the dried scabs of smallpox lesions into a healthy individual’s nose. The resulting smallpox infections tended to be milder, with only a 1-2 percent mortality rate compared to the 30 percent mortality associated with naturally acquired infections.
Variolation
