exam 2 review Flashcards
What are the differences between episodic and semantic memory? What kinds of memory does each refer to?
Episodic memory stores personal experiences tied to time and place, while semantic memory stores general knowledge and facts about the world.
List three reasons why episodic memory and semantic memory are considered separate neurocognitive systems.
- Different brain regions: Episodic → right prefrontal cortex; Semantic → left prefrontal cortex. 2. People perform differently on memory tasks. 3. Amnesia can impair one but not the other.
What is meant by the term levels of processing? Describe an experiment that supports it.
Deeper, meaning-based processing improves memory. Craik & Lockhart (1972) showed that words processed for meaning were recalled better than those processed for appearance or sound.
What is incidental learning? How does it differ from intentional learning?
Incidental learning occurs without trying to memorize; intentional learning involves active effort with expectation of a memory test.
What is survival processing? What experiment was done to demonstrate it?
Survival processing means rating words for survival relevance. Nairne et al. (2007) asked participants to rate a list of words based on their usefulness for survival in a grassland scenario.
Results showed that words rated for survival relevance were remembered better than words processed in other contexts (e.g., moving to a new home).
What is the generation effect? How does it improve memory?
The generation effect is the finding that memory is better for information that a person generates themselves (e.g., solving a word or creating a connection) rather than information they simply read or receive passively.
What is the von Restorff effect? How is it linked to distinctiveness?
The von Restorff effect is the tendency to remember an item that stands out from a list of similar items.
It is linked to distinctiveness because unique or unusual items attract more attention during encoding, making them more memorable than less distinctive items.
What is the theoretical difference between availability and accessibility?
Availability is all stored information; accessibility is the portion of that information we can retrieve at a given time.
What is encoding specificity? Describe an experiment that supports it.
Memory retrieval is best when conditions match encoding. Godden & Baddeley (1975) found divers recalled better when tested in the same environment they learned in.
What is retrieval-induced inhibition? How has it been tested in experiments?
Participants study category-item pairs (e.g., Fruit–Apple, Fruit–Orange).
They practice recalling only some items (e.g., Apple).
Later, when tested, recall for the unpracticed but related items (e.g., Orange) is impaired compared to unrelated items.
What is semantic memory? How does it differ from episodic memory and lexical memory?
Semantic memory stores general knowledge and facts; episodic memory stores personal experiences; lexical memory stores word forms and meanings used in language.
What is meant by the term spreading activation? How do experiments on semantic priming support the idea of spreading activation?
Spreading activation refers to how activation of one concept in memory spreads to related concepts. Semantic priming experiments show faster recognition of related words (e.g., doctor–nurse), supporting this idea.
What is meant by the term family resemblance for categories? How does it relate to the idea that categories have fuzzy boundaries?
Family resemblance refers to members of a category sharing overlapping features without all having one defining feature. This supports the idea that categories have fuzzy, not fixed, boundaries.
What are the differences among prototype theory, exemplar theory, and feature comparison theory?
Prototype Theory: We form a mental average (prototype) of a category based on typical features. New items are compared to this prototype to decide category membership. It explains typicality effects (e.g., a robin is a more typical bird than a penguin).
Exemplar Theory: We store many specific examples (exemplars) of category members in memory. When we encounter a new item, we compare it to all stored exemplars to determine similarity. This allows more flexibility and handles atypical cases well.
Feature Comparison Theory: Concepts are stored as feature lists, including defining and characteristic features. Categorization involves a two-stage comparison: first, overall similarity; then, a check for defining features if needed. Explains differences in reaction time when classifying items.
What were the results of Brewer and Treyens’s classic experiment on students’ memory for a waiting room? What do these results tell us about schemas?
Participants recalled schema-consistent objects (e.g., books) even if they weren’t present. This shows that schemas can influence and distort memory recall.
What is the difference between the single-store and dual-store view of a bilingual’s lexical memory? Which view do the data on cross-language priming support?
Single-store theory suggests a shared lexicon across languages; dual-store theory suggests separate lexicons. Cross-language priming supports the single-store view by showing shared semantic access.
When does relying on schemas lead to errors in retrieval from memory? Can you give an example of this from the discussion of music and memory?
Schemas can cause false memories by filling in expected details. In music, people may misremember hearing a song that fits the genre schema but wasn’t actually played.
What are the theoretical differences between a visual memory system that uses analog representation and one that uses propositional representation?
Analog Representation: Mental images are stored like pictures—they preserve spatial relationships and visual details. For example, imagining a map where locations are in the same layout as in real life.
Propositional Representation: Information is stored in a language-like, abstract form—using symbols and logic rather than images. It represents concepts and relationships (e.g., “The cat is under the table”) without forming a visual image.
Describe the Shepard-Metzler experiment. What was their hypothesis? How was the experiment conducted? What results did they get? And how were these results interpreted?
They hypothesized that mental rotation takes time proportional to the angle of rotation. Participants compared 3D shapes at various angles. Reaction times increased with rotation angle, suggesting analog imagery.
What is the difference between a lemma and a lexeme? How do speech errors support this conceptual difference?
A lemma is the abstract representation of a word—it includes its meaning and syntactic properties (like part of speech), but not its exact sound or spelling.
A lexeme is the word’s actual form, including its phonology and morphology (e.g., how it’s pronounced or conjugated).
💬 Speech errors support this distinction: for example, someone might say “He runned” instead of “He ran”—they selected the correct lemma (run as a verb) but applied the wrong lexeme form, showing these two components are processed separately in the mind.
What are the three levels of Conway’s theory of autobiographical memory representation? How do the levels interact?
The three levels are lifetime periods, general events, and event-specific knowledge. They interact hierarchically: broad lifetime periods organize general events, which contain detailed event-specific memories.
What does Conway mean by an extended event? How does it differ from an episodic memory?
An extended event lasts over hours or days (e.g., a vacation), while an episodic memory is a brief, specific event with a clear time and place (e.g., arriving at the hotel).
What is childhood amnesia? What are the four explanations for it? Which explanation works best?
Childhood amnesia is the lack of memories from early childhood (before age 3-4). Explanations: brain immaturity, lack of language, undeveloped self-concept, repression. The language and self-concept theories are especially supported.
What is a flashbulb memory? How do these memories differ from ordinary memories? How are they similar to ordinary memories?
Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed memories of learning about a shocking event. They feel special and are recalled with confidence, but are not more accurate than ordinary memories.
Why does keeping a diary help you remember important events from your life?
Diaries preserve details shortly after experiences occur, serving as cues for later retrieval and preventing forgetting or distortion over time.
What is the cue-word technique? How can it be used to study autobiographical memory?
Participants are given a word cue (e.g., ‘tree’) and asked to recall a related personal memory. Researchers analyze the content, age, and emotional detail of the retrieved memories.
It helps study autobiographical memory by identifying patterns in memory retrieval over the lifespan and investigating phenomena like the reminiscence bump or childhood amnesia.
What is the reminiscence bump? What three explanations have been put forward to explain it?
The reminiscence bump is the high number of memories recalled from ages 10–30. Cognitive/Novelty Hypothesis: This period includes many first-time and novel experiences (e.g., first love, first job), and the brain is at peak cognitive functioning, leading to stronger encoding of memories.
Identity Formation Hypothesis: Ages 10–30 are crucial for developing a stable sense of self. Memories tied to identity are more meaningful and thus more frequently rehearsed and better remembered.
Cultural Life Script Hypothesis: Many culturally expected life events (e.g., graduation, marriage, starting a career) occur during this time. These culturally shared “scripts” help organize memory and make events from this period easier to recall.
What is the difference between a field memory and an observer memory?
Field memories are recalled from a first-person perspective; observer memories are recalled as if viewing oneself from a third-person perspective.
What are involuntary memories? What factors increase their retrieval?
Involuntary memories come to mind without effort. Emotional intensity, distinctiveness, and sensory cues increase their likelihood of retrieval.
What area of the brain is associated with visual imagery in autobiographical memory? What area of the brain is associated with emotion in autobiographical memory?
Visual imagery is linked to the occipital lobe and posterior parietal regions. Emotion is linked to the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex.
What are false memories? Do they only happen to people who have been traumatized, or are they a more general phenomenon?
False memories are memories of events that never occurred. They are a general phenomenon and can happen to anyone, not just those who have been traumatized.
What does correspondence mean? Why is reporting the amount that people recall not enough to fully describe memory ability?
Correspondence refers to how accurate a memory is in reflecting the actual event. Amount recalled doesn’t show how true those memories are, so accuracy must also be measured. Coherence is how much the memory aligns with concept of self
What is the difference between the amount recalled and the accuracy of that recall? Under what circumstances is it important to consider false memories?
Amount recalled is how much info is remembered; accuracy is how correct that info is. False memories matter in high-stakes contexts like legal testimony or therapy.
What is the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure? What does it measure, and how does it do so?
The DRM procedure presents lists of related words and tests recall of a critical lure (unstudied but related word). It measures susceptibility to false memories.
How does the visual false-memory procedure differ from the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure? Which is more generalizable to real-world false memories, and why?
DRM Procedure: Participants study lists of related words (e.g., bed, pillow, dream) and often falsely recall a critical lure (e.g., sleep) that was never presented. It measures verbal false memories.
Visual False-Memory Procedure: Participants view a sequence of related images (e.g., kitchen items) and later falsely recall or recognize similar but non-presented images. It measures visual false memories.
The visual false-memory procedure is more generalizable to real-world situations because everyday memories often involve visual scenes and not just words, making it a closer match to real-world memory processes.
What is the false memory induction procedure? What does it measure, and how does it do so?
It involves suggesting or manipulating people into believing false autobiographical events. It measures how easily false memories can be implanted through suggestion.
What is hypnosis? Why is it not considered advisable to help people remember more information from a crime scene?
Hypnosis is an altered state of focused attention and suggestion. It is not advisable for memory retrieval because it increases false memories and confidence in errors.
What evidence exists to show that repression is a real phenomenon? Why would cognitive scientists have doubted repression in the first place?
Evidence for Repression: Some clinical cases suggest traumatic memories can be forgotten and later recovered, and research on trauma shows distressing memories may become inaccessible.
Why Scientists Doubt It:
Lack of experimental support
Malleability of memory (false memories can be implanted)
Suggestibility in therapy leading to false recollections
What is the retrieval-suppression view of repression? What experimental evidence has been advanced to support this view?
This view suggests people can actively suppress unwanted memories. Think/no-think experiments show reduced recall for suppressed items, supporting this theory.
What cognitive mechanisms have been postulated to explain repression? What experimental data support that these cognitive mechanisms are real?
Mechanisms like inhibitory control and attentional avoidance have been proposed. Lab studies using directed forgetting and suppression tasks show these mechanisms are real and measurable.
