Exam 2 Miller + Smith Flashcards
1
Q
What is Cognitive Science
A
The interdisciplinary study of the mind and its processes; Study of intelligent behavior; The brain mechanisms and computations underlying that behavior.
2
Q
The Major movements in the history of Cognitive Science
A
1800s- Mind not an object of (scientific) study
1800-1840 - Phrenology
1880 - 1920s - Structuralism
1913 - 1960s - Behaviorism
1950s - Cognitive Revolution
1970s- Cognitive Neuroscience
3
Q
Before the 1800s
A
Major Figures
Rene Descartes and William James
Key Legacy: Mind body problem
4
Q
1800- 1840 Phrenology
A
Frank Joseph Gall
Pseudoscience
Measures skull to infer about the brain and mind
Legacy: Brain areas have specific local functions.
5
Q
1880s - 1920s Structuralism
A
Key Figures: Wilhelm Wundt (1st Psych Lab)
Edward Titchener
Key Legacy: Break down things into elements
Methods of analytical introspection.
6
Q
1913- 1960s Behaviorism
A
John Watson
B.F. Skinner
Ivan Pavlov
Legacy: Focus on behavior (Operant conditioning)
7
Q
1950s- Cognitive Revolution
A
Noam Chomsky (1959) criticized Skinners book
Argued language is biologically innate
Children say things and are never rewarded,
8
Q
Information Processing
A
Likened the mind to a computer
Thought of processing info in a series of stages and both have limited capacity.
9
Q
Cognitive Science
A
The mind can and should be studied
Goal= understand how our experience are represented in the mind and brain
10
Q
Measurement (Recording)
A
Reveal Brain regions associated with certain mental processes/ behaviors
Assess correlations between brain and behavior
11
Q
Correlation
A
12
Q
Perturbation (causal) techniques
A
Require changing the brain
Access causal relationships
13
Q
What is the difference between special and temporal resolution?
A
14
Q
3 Measurements/ recordings
A
FMRI
PET
EEG
15
Q
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
A
How does it work?
1. Brain is activated
2. Associated part gets blood for oxygen
3. FMRI reads different magnetic properties
16
Q
Subtraction Method
A
(Condition A - Condition B)
Resting state functional connectivity measures how closely FMRI signals in diff region track each other in the absence of an experimental task
17
Q
Advantages and Disadvantage of FMRI
A
Advantages: Good spatial resolution
Noninvasive
Disadvantages: Poor temporal resolution
Expensive, loud disruptive. Can’t move.
18
Q
Positron Emission Tomography
A
How does it work?
1. Radioactive Ligands injected into body
2. Ligands bind to relevant receptor
3. Machine detects gamma rays
19
Q
Advantages and Disadvantages of PET
A
Advantages: Distribution/ degree of neurotransmitter signaling
Can detect early onset of diseases
Disadvantages :
Very poor temporal resolution
Very expensive and invasive
20
Q
Electroencephalography (EEG)
A
How does it work?
1. Scalp electrodes worn by participant
2. Brain produces electric activity
3. Signals are averaged over trails to create Event Related Potential (ERPS)
21
Q
Advantages and disadvantages of EEG
A
Advantages
Good Temporal resolution
Direct measure of neural activity
non invasive; inexpensive
Relatively mobile and feasible for infants
Disadvantages: poor spatial resolution
22
Q
Perturbation (stimulation
A
Assess causal relationships
Requires changing the brain
Ex. Naturally occurring lesions
TMS
23
Q
How do we study Naturally Occurring Lesions?
A
- Major event causes lesion
- Brain examined to identify lesion
- Behavior studied to identify changes and effects
24
Q
Pros and Cons of NOL
A
Advances: powerful for inferring causality
Disadvantages: legions are often not focal
Patients can be difficult to find
Can’t induce legions
25
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
How does it work?
1. Emits magnetic pulses
2. Pulses converted to electrical current
3. Inhibits or excites particular function
26
What is stimuli?
Physical Phenomena that interacts with sensory organs
Ex. Light waves, sound waves, volatile chemicals
27
What are sensory receptors?
Cells within sensory organs with specific process purposes
Ex. Rods/cones, olfactory nerves
28
Transduction
Translation of a stimulus into neural signals transmitted to the brain.
Excite or inhibit action potentials
29
Sensation
The interacting with the physical stimuli of the world
30
Perception
the Cognitive experience of the stimuli, involves elaboration and interpretation of sensory stimuli
31
Sensation of a green light
Stimulus= Green light
Sensory organ = eye
Sensory Receptors = photoreceptors
32
Sensation of Stimulus
Effect of stimulus on sensory receptors.
Translation of stimulus into neural signals that are transmitted to the brain
Turned into chemical and electrical signals
The processing and interpreting into mental representation
33
What is transduction?
Transduction = translation of stimulus into neural signals transmitted to the brain.
34
What is sensation?
Sensation= Interaction with physical stimulus of the world.
35
What is perception?
Perception= cognitive experience of stimuli
36
What are the two sensory receptors involved in vision?
1. Cones
2. Rods
37
Where are the rods and cones located?
Cones are located in the center of the retina
Rods are located in peripheral
38
What sensory receptor is more sensitive during the day?
Cones are more sensitive during the day
39
What receptor is more sensitive during the night?
Rods are more sensitive at night.
40
How do light waves travel through the brain to trigger changes In MP?
From Light waves to the brain.
1. Light goes through optic nerve
2. Lens is able to refract light and bend light to put it in focus
3. Light converted on rods and cones
4. APs in ganglion created
5. APs sent down membrane
41
What is the receptive field?
Small area of photoreceptors respond (visual field). Fovea is densely packed with cones and correspond to outer part of visual field, have high spatial resolution. Outside= less dense; more peripheral less spatial resolution, corresponds to outside area of visual fields.
42
Center-surround organization
Light falling on center of reception field leads to activation
Light off center leads to inhibition
43
Off-Center On-Surround
Light falling on center of reception field leads to inhibition
Light off center leads to activation
44
What is the first part of the brain that the optic nerve projects to?
The optic nerve projects to the lateral Genicular Nucleus (LGN) which projects to primary visual cortex.
45
What are the two streams of the visual system?
Dorsal stream
Ventral stream
46
What is the dorsal stream?
“Where” pathway involved in spatial perception allows us to spatially locate objects. Originates in V1 and extends into posterior parietal cortex ( and ultimately dorsal front context)
47
What is the ventral stream?
“What” pathway, object detection analyzes shape, texture ID. Extends into anterior temporal lobe
48
How does information processing become more complex via hierarchical coding hypothesis?
Things are processed in stages, as stages go up everything becomes more complex. Neurons coding for more rudimentary features synapse onto neurons coding more complex features.
49
6 visual systems and their functions
V1- Edge detection and some guide for attention
V2- further refinement
V3- Global motion detection
V4 - simple shape processing
V5- (MT) - complex motion
V6 Connection to motion movement
50
Location in brain of…
Places
Biological Motion
Motion
Objects
Faces
Bodies
Parahippocampal place area (PPA)
Superior Temporal sulcus (STS)
Middle Temporal Area (MT)
Lateral Occipital Cortex (LOC)
Fusiform Face Area (FFA)
Extrastriate Body Area (EBA)
51
What is frequency?
Frequency measured in Hz, A higher frequency = higher pitch. Frequency correlates to compression of sound waves.
52
What is amplitude?
Amplitude is related to the loudness. Correlates to the height of the waves. Higher waves are louder.
53
What is timbre?
Timbre correlates to the complexity of waves, refers to the quality of character of sound.
54
Main roles of each part of the ear?
Outer ear= captures sound itself and runs it to the eardrum. Middle ear = amplifies sound and gets transmitted to inner ear. Inner ear= where transduction occurs and sound waves become a part of neural activity.
55
What is the process of transduction during hearing?
From ear drum to middle ear, stapes pushes stuff into cochlea. Diff frequency sound waves vibrate differently in Basilar membrane = diff interpretations. Bending of hair cells cause k+ and Ca2+ influx through non selective channels leading to depolarization 2) VG Ca2+ CH open release of neurotransmitters into synapse. 3) Neuros whose axons form the auditory nerve fire APS relaying frequency into brain.
56
What are the sensory receptors for sound?
Sensory receptors for sound are hair cells
57
Where are hair cells located?
Hair cells are located in parts of basilar membrane
58
Difference between MGN and LGN
MGN takes output from both ears (Bi-Hemispheric) and passes to A1 key point. Both hemispheres involved in vision. Crossover left covers right, vice versa. Diff stimulus light and sound waves. Relay aspect through thalamus
59
What does it mean that A1 is tonotopically organized?
Diff frequencies respond to diff parts of cochlea which correspond to diff parts in A1.
60
What happens if A1 is damaged?
A1 Dmg leads to inability to be aware of sound despite being able to respond relatively reflexively to it
61
What are the processing pathways for hearing?
Ventral pathway= meaning “what” and location “where”
Dorsal = production “how”
62
What is the main function of the multi sensory integration process?
Sound perceived in conjunction with other sensory input. Relevant sensations are integrated together in cortical Association areas
63
What is synesthesia?
Sensory info in neuropathy’s start to be welded together involuntarily. Ex. See the color red when thinking of Wednesday.
64
What is a receptor potential?
Receptor potential= local change in membrane potential, can be hyper polarizing or few mV. can lead to AP traveling to CNS
65
What is specificity of Sensation?
Different receptor types respond preferentially to different stimuli and and project to diff parts of CNS.
66
What nerve carries taste info from tongue/mouth to the brain?
Gustatory nerve, carries info up brain stem-> thalamus-> caudal orbital cortex.
67
No taster, Supertaster, taster
Non taster= very little sensitivity to bitterness supertaster= very sensitive to bitterness,
Taster= middle of the road
68
what are major brain regions that receive smell info?
Amygdala, hippocampus, and primary olfactory cortex (temporal lobe)
69
What are pheromones?
Substances secreted to the outside and received by a second individual of the same species
70
What does the Iris do?
Controls how much light gets let in through the pupil
71
Where are images relayed to the brain?
Optic nerve
72
Where are cones concentrated?
Concentrated at fovea (focal vision)
73
Light wave to the brain
Photoreceptor cells at back of retina, both PR contain stacks of discs that absorb light triggering changes in membrane potential-> Both PR release NT onto bipolar neurons
74
Retinal Ganglion
These neurons exit the eye, their axons form optic nerve
75
Lateral Genicular Nucleus
Projects to V1, cross pattern
76
Retinotopic Mapping
Different parts of brain react to different types of gift waves
77
Cortical blindness
Blind spots in areas of visual space
78
What is the stimulus of hearing?
Pressure waves from mechanical disturbances to air molecules producing vibrations that oscillate
79
Hemispheres in hearing
Right and left. Bothe go t midbrain then to thalamus and to cerebral cortex (A1)
80
Sensory Systems
Monitor the presence/ absence of things in the world with our body- what is it and where is it
81
Specialized sense organs
Eye- vision
Ear- Hearing
Tongue- taste
Nose- smell
fingers- touch
Distributed through the body
82
Receptive field
Stimulation anywhere within the receptive field results in a signal from the same sensory afferent
83
Anatomy of sensory systems
1.Eye- Visual cortex
2. Nose- olfactory cortex
3. Tongue- gustatory cortex
4. Ear- Auditory Cortex
5. Balance/ Equilibrium- Cerebellum
84
TASTE pathway
1. Food chemicals sensed by sensory nerve endings in the tongue taste bud pores
2. Information is transmitted through the gustatory nerve (three cranial nerves)
3. Gustatory nerve travels up brain stem to thalamus and onto the caudal orbital cortex for processing
85
5 Basic qualities of taste
Flavor= our impression of food
Sweet, Salty, Sory, Bitter and Unami (savory associated with mono sodium glutamate)
86
COV 19 and gustatory dysfunction
COV 19 damages taste bus and salivary glands
ACE2 receptor down-regulation
Inflammation and cytokines signaling on tastebuds
87
Neuroprotective role of bitter taste receptors
Receptors involved in sononasal innate immunity
Localized to motile cilia in nasal tract
Can kill pathogens when activated by Nitric oxide
88
Smell olfaction pathway
Odors bind to olfactory receptor cells (top of nasal cavity)
2. Ap travel to cribriform plate(bone) then to olfactory bulb, where they synapse on the dendrites of mitral and tufted cell.
3. Signals travel on to the amygdala, the hippocampus and the Primary olfactory cortex (temporal lobe)
89
COV 19 and olfactory dysfunction
Upper airway viral infections affect olfaction
Loss of olfactory receptors not permanent (regeneration)
90
COV 19 Mechanistic hypothesis
Viral entry via SuS cells in olfactory epithelium
Spike (S) proteins in virus bind to SUS host cell receptors (ACE2) and transmembrane protease (TMPRSS2) causing S proteins t undergo conformational changes leading to viral cell entry
91
SUS cells
Sustentacular cells
92
Inflammation in COV 19
Inflammation infiltrates olfactory receptor cells (activated lymphocytes and secretin of pro inflammatory cytokines)
93
More anatomy of Ear
Pinna= shape of ear funnels in sound]
ME pass info to cochlea also filter device cleans up certain parts of sound waves
Output of eardrum(tympanic membrane) transmitted to 3 small bone ossicles.
3 bones act as mechanic lever, amplify and transmit particular vibrations
94
What type of receptor are sterocillia?
Mechanical receptors
95
What are Motor systems?
How do elements of the neural circuitry (sensory,inter,motor neurons, muscles and brain) work together to produce motor output.
96
How do we study locomotion in lab?
Record movement as animals go through that behavior
Or
From isolated nervous system kept viable in dish where sensory feedback is missing
97
What two animals are used?
Lamprey, jawless fish and Manducta Sexta, Tobacco hornworm
98
Electromyography on Lamprey
Lamprey can swim forward and backward and ap will be recorded from muscles. Clustered in bursts rapid ap firing. Delay important in muscle contraction to allow movement
99
Fictive Locomotor patterns
Fictive = to create, creating movement In the absence of movement. Stimulated by application of drugs, hormones that act to stimulate nervous system to creat particular nervous patterns. No sensory input or muscles
100
Electrodes
Intercellular to measure APs in MPs inject current positive or negative
Patch clamp measures current flow through individual channels
101
Extracellular recordings
Recordings happening outside of cell. Recording from nerves coming out of spinal cord. These nerves contain axons coming from neurons.
102
Isolated spinal cord- fictive locomotion
Isolate spinal cord without brain. Rhythm created by glutamate agonists. Inhibitory connections via glycine that regulate burst frequency
103
What determines length of quiet periods?
When you have inhibitory connections, depending on inhibition onto motor neurons determines length of quiet period and determines how long you see that bursting.
104
How does caterpillar move in nature
Waves of muscle contraction start at tail and move forward
105
How is the caterpillar studied
Isolating nervous system and keeping it alive with various reagents. Each segment is a ganglia or mass of neuronal cell bodies and axons. Insert steroid hormone call ecdysone or drug pilocarpine that mimics AcH binding to muscarinic receptors to get fictive crawling in dish. In other animals you can provide glutamate.
106
What are central pattern generators?
Networks capable of producing rhythmic movement
Groups of neurons acting as ‘pacemakers’ setting the Rhythm
107
What is the role of the brain?
IN Both in and vertebrae’s electrical or chem stimulus of brain in lab can initiate walking flight crawling and provide inhibitory drive over the motor rhythm
108
Primary motor (precentral gyrus)
-Control of voluntary movement (director of skeletal muscles)
109
Primary Somatosensory Area
Receives sensory info from touch, temperature, etc receptors from all over the body
110
Basal Ganglia
Important in motor learning and control (movement, speech) Dopamine is a very important neurotransmitter.
111
Cerebellum
Receives input form proprioceptors in muscles and tendons about movement; send signals to motor cortex to improve and coordinate movement
Also receives input from visual and vestibular receptors and send input to motor cortex to aid in regulation of posture and balance
112
STG
Stomatogastric ganglion, or a fictive feeding network in a dish
113
Parkinson’s disease neuropathology
Alpha- \, a synaptic protein, accumulates in its phosphorylated form in cell bodies and at synapses. It becomes toxic (lewy Bodies) and can cause dopamine neuron cell death affecting the basal ganglia movement and speech.
114
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
Motor Nuerons die in the brain and spinal cord and muscle tissue wastes away.
Brain fails to initiate/control movement, speech and swallowing
115
Striatum
Putamen
Caudate nucleus
116
Substantial nigra
In Parkinson’s patients, dopamine neurons in the nigro- striata’s pathway degenerate
117
ALS affects on astrocytes
Toxic effect specific to motor neurons
Toxin may be secreted
Induce microglia activation
118
Als affects on microglia
Chronic neuroinflammation
119
ALS affects on oligodendrocytes
Vulnerable to cytoplasmic deposits
Dysfunction could compromise metabolic supply to neurons
120
ALS effects on Motor Neurons
-Defective autophagy
Abnormal RNA processing
Hyper excitability
121
What is the STG composed of?
1. Motor Neurons
2. Modulator Neurons
3. Inter neurons
4. Bursting and pacemaker neurons-
122
Inhibitory neurotransmitter to regulate motor pattern in nervous system
Pattern generation
Maintaining balance between excitation and inhibition
Prevents hyperactivity of a neural circuit
