Exam 2 ID Terms Flashcards
Scientific Method
A method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century. It consists of:
systematic observation
measurement
experiment
the formulation, testing, and modification of a hypothesis
It is based on empirical or measurable evidence.
Voltaire
A French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher.
He attacked the Catholic church and believed in freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state.
One of his most famous works is Candide–attacked religious persecution and philosophical optimism.
Promoted the idea of Enlightened Despotism–an absolute monarchy that acts in the interest of the people.
John Locke
An English philosopher whose work contributed to the development of the ideas of the social contract and natural rights.
Called the “Father of Liberalism”
Wrote Two Treatises of Government.
Believed we have natural rights not dependent on laws or customs or governments including “life, health, liberty, or possessions”.
Social contract theory–individuals consent to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to either a ruler or the decision of the majority in exchange for protection of their remaining rights.
Ideas became the basis of the American and French revolutions.
Wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
Promoted idea of tabula rasa–humans born as a blank slate and our experiences shape who we are.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Important theories on the social contract:
Humans are basically good but become corrupted by the progress of civilization
Government should promote the general will: the common interests of the people.
This does not necessarily mean the majority rules as not everyone is educated enough to know what is best for them.
Also published ideas on women (EMILE):
said men and women operate in separate spheres that compliment each other.
The private sphere is for women and the public sphere is for men.
Gave value to what women do in the private sphere and he said women should be better educated.
Frederick the Great
aka Frederick II of Prussia–an example of an enlightened despot
Believed he was the 1st servant of the state–job to enlighten people, improve their manners and morals, help them be happy.
Welcomed Jews and Catholics for their skills but he did not let them hold prominent positions in the government
Improved schools and education
simplified the legal system and abolished torture
promoted the development of agriculture and industry
Never improved the condition of the serfs on the estates, however.
Pugachev’s Rebellion
In 1773, Emilan Pugachev led a rebellion of Russian peasants against Catherine the Great.
He claimed to be the true tsar of Russia.
Rebellion ended in 1775 when Catherine used the full force of the military against him.
He was publicly executed.
Catherine decided the peasants needed to be controlled–allowed nobles more power over the serfs on their estates.
Joseph II
Example of an Enlightened Despot
Ruled Austria, first with his mother Maria Theresa (1765-1780) , and then by himself.
(1780-1790).
Promoted education at the primary level throughout the empire.
Beginning in 1781, issued decrees extending freedom of religion throughout the empire–even toward the Jews.
Required German to be the language of government–this alienated the Hungarians who were used to be treating special in exchange for their loyalty.
He limited the amount of labor a noble could demand from the serfs.
Eventually (1781) he abolished serfdom.
1789–he said all debts would be paid in cash instead of labor–he thought this would help the peasants not become serfs and preserve their freedom but it made people unhappy.
Peasants not used to dealing in cash. Nobles wanted the labor of the peasants.
(Overturned after his death in 1790)
parlements
In France, these were courts dominated by nobles.
They had the power to declare the laws or acts of the kings as valid or invalid.
They existed for years but were kept inactive by Louis XIV because he did not want the nobles to have power.
Under Louis XV, the Duke of Orleans gave them more power in exchange for the right to serve as regent for Louis XV.
Estates General
French representative body that represented the different estates, or levels, of society.
First Estate= Clergy–small percentage of the population, includes upper levels of the church, exempt from taxation
Second Estate=nobility, small percentage of the population, exempt from taxation
Third Estate= 96% of the population, upper and lower classes and peasants, frustrated that even if they had money or power they were till treated like 2nd class citizens.
Not called since 1614.
Never called by Louis XIV–did not want them to interfere in his absolute rule.
Called by Louis XV in 1788 to discuss new land tax he wanted.
How will their votes be counted? 1 vote for each estate or 1 vote for each person in each estate? This disagreement will lead to the 3rd Estate breaking away and creating a National Assembly (Tennis Court).
Louis XV asks other estates to join them and allows them to vote by head.
Great Fear
- 1789
- A period of panic and riots by the peasants and others.
- Caused by worries that the king and the nobility were going to overthrow the Third Estate
- Throughout the late summer of 1789 rebellion spread to the countryside
- Peasants rise up against the landlords they work for
- Destroy symbols of power over them
- August 4, 1789 - National Assembly in an attempt to end the unrest in the countryside - tell the peasants they will get rid of their special privileges - making everyone equal under the law
Declaration of the Rights of Women
● 1791 - Olympe de Gouges published
● Written to Marie Antoinette
● Extends the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen to women
○ Argued women should be included in the title of citizen
○ Women should be able to own property in their name
○ Men should be required to accept paternity of their children
○ Push for better educational opportunities for women & equality within marriage
(author is later guillotined during the Reign of Terror)
Jacobins
• The Jacobins were a revolutionary political movement during the French Revolution.
• They were closely allied with the working class Parisians called the sans-culottes.
• In September 1791 the National Assembly declared the Revolution over.
o They have written a constitution for France
o Create a new representative body - Legislative Assembly
o France is now a constitutional monarchy
• The Jacobins did not agree that the Revolution was over—they believed France should be a republic
• They were opposed by the Girondists who were happy with the constitutional monarchy
• By Spring 1792 - tension between Jacobins and Girondists had grown
• Girondists have the majority in the Legislative Assembly
• April 20, 1792 - Legislative Assembly declare war on Austria
o Louis XVI supports this because he thinks Austria and Prussia will come to the rescue of the monarchy
o Girondists feel focusing on an enemy outside of France will quiet the unrest within France
• September 1792 - Legislative Assembly disbanded in favor of a new representative body - the Convention
• Jacobins dominated the Convention
• 1st act when they meet is to declare France a republic– has an elected official at the head of state not a monarch
• December 1792 - Louis XVI put on trial for conspiring against the liberty of the people and the security of the state
• Jacobins push for a guilty verdict–Girondists try to stop the trial
• Louis XVI is found guilty by a narrow margin and sentenced to death
Maximilian Robespierre
● He was head of the Committee of Public Safety
● He said: “Terror is nothing but prompt, severe, inflexible justice; it is therefore an emanation of virtue.”
● He believed the Republic of Virtue was only attainable through the use of force
● Organized revolutionary tribunals to weed out enemies of the Revolution
● Definition of an enemy of the Revolution was unclear
● One of the 1st victims was Queen Marie Antoinette
● November 1793 - Olympe de Gouges beheaded
● List of enemies of the Revolution continue to grow, executions were becoming backlogged with many people executed each day
● June 10, 1794 - Law of 22 passed - allowed Revolutionary Tribunals to convict people without hearing any evidence
● July 1794 – Robespierre was accused by prominent leaders of the Revolution of being an enemy of the Revolution
● The next day Robespierre was arrested & executed
● Reign of Terror was over–roughly 25,000 were killed between 1793 – 1794
Constitution of the Year III
• After the Reign of Terror, people wanted to return to some kind of normal situation.
○ Dismantle the tribunals
○ Repeal Law of 22
○ Close Jacobin clubs throughout France so they couldn’t regain power
○ Kicked many of those responsible for the Terror out of office
○ Some were formally put on trial & some were turned loose into society for the locals to deal with
● August 22, 1795 - adopt the Constitution of the Year III
● Executive body = Directory was composed of 5 men
● Bicameral Legislature—2 bodies:
○ House of Elders
○ Council of 500
● Members of the Directory were elected by the House of Elders from a list created by the Council of 500
● Voting was limited by property qualifications unless you served in the military
Agricultural Revolution
• Agricultural Revolution began in the 18th century as the ideas of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment were incorporated into the production of food
• During the Agricultural Revolution important ways to produce more food were used:
o Started planting crops that could enrich the soil so farmers wouldn’t have to leave fields fallow to restore nutrients.
o Drained swamps to use as farmland
o Enclosed some shared lands to increase food production on the fields.
o Made seed planting more uniform.
• Result = more food produced on less land with fewer laborers resulting in a group of landless laborers—who now need something else to do to make a living
Cottage Industry
• Also known as the putting out system
• Involved a merchant buying raw materials and taking them to the countryside and giving the material to the peasant worker who would then turn the raw materials into a finished product
• The merchant would then take the finished product to market and sell it for a profit
• The peasant worker was paid by the piece
• Benefits:
o Landless laborers could make money using the skills they already possessed
o Landless laborers could do the work in their homes and on their schedule
o Merchants were able to bypass the guild system allowing them to have goods produced at a cheaper cost
• Drawbacks:
o Unpredictable work habits of the landless laborers –Merchants couldn’t depend on the workers to get things done
o Lack of quality control
o Tension began to develop between the merchant and the workers
• By the end of the 18th century the drawbacks were starting to outweigh any benefit to the putting out system
• Also new inventions were being developed that were too expensive for peasants to own and keep in their homes (spinning jenny, power loom)
James Watt
- An energy crisis was making it hard for industry to grow.
- In 1760, James Watt obtained a patent for his steam engine
- By the 1780’s James Watt’s steam engine was a practical and commercial success in England
- The steam engine has been called the most fundamental advance in technology of the Industrial Revolution by some historians—because it powered many other inventions
The Rocket
• Built by George Stephenson in 1825
• 1st effective steam locomotive
• Travelled between Manchester & Liverpool in 1830 at 16mph (from an important manufacturing town to an important port)
• Important because:
○ railroads reduced the cost & uncertainty of overland shipping
○ caused markets to grow
○ created a demand for larger factories
○ changed the outlook of society–immense speed of the new age was revealed
○ created jobs for landless laborers who worked on the railroad
○ workers took the train to work in the cities – typically men and single women went to the city while wives remained in the countryside
Laissez Faire
Laissez Faire
• Idea made famous by economist Adam Smith
• Means to leave alone—government should not interfere with business
• Opposite of mercantilism where the government intervenes in the economy (developed by French minister Colbert)
• Adam Smith believed the market would take care of itself based on supply and demand
• Businessman used this idea to defend their right to do as they pleased in their factories
Robert Owen
• One of the Utopian Socialists who were inspired by French Revolution when the government regulated the economy for the benefit of society at large
• British self made cotton manufacturer
• Believer in John Locke’s idea of tabula rasa – if people have good experiences then they will be good people
• Believed in Enlightened Management
o Applied the ideas of tabula rasa with his employees in his factory
o Built churches and playgrounds near the factory
o Provided education for employees children
o Rewarded good work rather than punish bad behavior
• Owen still made a profit
• Established New Harmony, IN – attempting to apply his utopian socialist beliefs on a community wide scale
• When the community failed, Owen returned to Britain
• He tried to get other factory owners to adopt enlightened management but they refused
• Petitioned Parliament to create a Grand National Union – consolidating all trade unions under one umbrella-Parliament refused
• -Owen & other Utopian Socialists planted the seeds for change in society
Communist Manifesto
- Written in 1848 by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel
- Explains philosophy of Communism
- Described how history developed through a series of class struggles – to get to the next level of history there was a clash between “thesis and antithesis” (2 forces)
- Based on specific examples from history—well researched
- Needs of the middle class and working class are diametrically opposed to each other—2 different visions of problems and their solutions
- Middle class vs. Upper class –middle class wins (Ex. French revolution)
- Working class (Proletariat) vs. Middle class (bourgeoisie) –working class will win (more people)
- Dictatorship of the Proletariat (working class) leads to a classless & property-less society
- Property is the root of the problems—people worried about getting it and keeping it
- Popular because it had a scientific appeal –based on history, clear description of steps in the process
- Revolution will occur first in England—they are industrialized and have large population of workers
- But, English Parliament made reforms that prevented conditions to get worse and gave more people say in the government—held off revolution (expanded right to vote, for example)
What method, based on empirical or measurable evidence, was important to the age of Enlightenment?
The scientific method.
Which philosopher promoted the idea of Enlightened Despotism?
Voltaire
Who is called the Father of Liberalism?
John Locke
