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A and P 2 > Exam 2: Endocrinology- second half > Flashcards

Exam 2: Endocrinology- second half Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the anatomy of the thyroid gland.

Figures 13.18-.19

A
  • Follicle:
    • Folliclular cells (basketball itself)
    • Colloid (hallow center of ball)
  • extrafollicular cells (C cells)
    • make different hormone
    • external to follicle
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2
Q

Describe the function and regulation of triiodothyronine and thyroxine (both are tyrosine derivatives).
triiodothyronine (T3)

figure 13.20

A

Function:

  • Increases rate of energy release from carbohydrates
  • increase rate of protein synthesis
  • accelerates growth- make new cells
  • stimulates activity in the nervous system

Regulation:
-TSH from the anterior pituitary gland

5x more potent than thyroxine; so takes less to get same effect

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3
Q

Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism (cretinism, myxedema, simple goiter) and hyperthyroidism (Grave’s disease).

           hypothyroidism (list)
A
  1. Hypothyroidism Infantile
  2. Hypothyroidism Adult:
  3. Myxedema
  4. Simple Goiter
    cause: could be autoimmune: autoantibodies destroy own thyroid cells
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4
Q

Describe the source, function, and regulation of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone, and discuss how these two hormones work together to regulate blood levels of calcium. [Review BIOL 225]

                 *Calcitonin
A
  1. Source:
    • synthesized in extrafollicluar cells (thyroid gland)
  2. Function:
    -regulate blood level of calcium
    ~lowers blood calcium and phosphate by inhibiting the release of these 2 ions from bones
    ~ increasing the rate at which calcium and phosphate ions are deposited in bones
    -increases excretion of calcium by the kidneys
  3. Regulation:
    • elevated blood calcium ion concentration
    • digestive hormones
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5
Q

Describe the anatomy of the adrenal gland.

A
  1. Adrenal Medulla
  2. Adrenal Cortex

figure 13.28-.29

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6
Q

Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones (catecholamines) from the adrenal medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine.

figure 13.30

A

-synthsized by chromaffin cells (adrenal cortex)

Function:
**see other cards
Regulation:
-Nervous system

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7
Q

Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the adrenal cortex: mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol), sex hormones (adrenal androgens and estrogen).

             aldosterone
A

Category: Mineralocorticoids- mineral levels

Function:
-Helps regulate the concentration of extracellular electrolytes by conserving sodium ions and excreting potassium ions
-raise blood Na+, lower levels of K+
(membrane- Na+ out higher than K+ inside)
Regulation:
-Electrolyte concentrations in body fluids and reninagiostensin system
-circulating levels of ions in plasma
(GREAT ESSAY ?)

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8
Q

Explain the causes and consequences of the following adrenal cortex conditions: Cushing syndrome, Addison disease.

            Cushing Syndrome

clinical app 13.3

A

-hypersecretion of cortisol
Causes
-adrenal tumor- all hormone effected
-too much ACTH- only cortisol effected
-cortiosteroid drug use (supplements)- stop natural feedback

consequences pg 513

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9
Q

Describe the anatomy of the pancreas.

figures 13.34-.35

A
  • elongated
  • posterior to stomach
  • duct attaches pancreas to the first section of the small intestine

~exocrine function
~endocrine function
-blood regulation
-secretory cells in pancreatic islets

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10
Q

Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the pancreas: glucagon, insulin, pancreatic somatostatin.

               Glucagon  (alpha cells)

figure 13.36

A

Function:
*raises blood glucose levels
-stimulates the liver to break down glycogen and convert noncarbohydrates into glucose
-stimulates breakdown of fats
~ Glycogenolysis: break down (muscle, liver)
~Gluconeogenesis: promote build up (lipids, protein)
Regulation:
-blood glucose concentration

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11
Q

Explain the causes and consequences of diabetes mellitus (types 1 and 2).

clinical app 13.4

A

Type 1: insulin-dependent

  • childhood-most
  • Cause:
    • autoimmune- body destroy sell (attack beta cells)

Type 2: non-insulin-dependent

  • overweight
  • Cause:
    • loss sensitivity- body produce insulin but can’t recognize it
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12
Q

Describe the source, function, and regulation of melatonin.

A 
Source: synthesized form serotonin
   -pineal gland
Function:
   -circadian rhythms (sleep/wake rhythms)
Regulation:
   -impulses from retina
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13
Q

Distinguish between stress and stressor, and between physical and psychological stress.

              stress and stressor
A

Stress: response to factors perceived as life-threatening

stressor: a factor capable of stimulating a stress response

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14
Q

Describe the events of the short-term and long-term stages of the general adaptation (stress) response.

      Short-Term

figure 13.37, table table 13.13

A
  • immediate
  • “Fight or flight”
  • alarm stage

*adrenal medulla- epinephrine, norepinephrine

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15
Q

Describe the function and regulation of triiodothyronine and thyroxine (both are tyrosine derivatives).

           Thyroxine (T4)

figure 13.20

A

Function:

  • Increases rate of energy release from carbohydrates
  • increase rate of protein synthesis
  • accelerates growth- make new cells
  • stimulates activity in the nervous system

Regulation:
-TSH from the anterior pituitary gland

more plentiful in blood stream than Triiodothyronine

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16
Q

General information about triiodothyronine and thyroxine (both are tyrosine derivatives).

figure 13.20

A

Iodine pump:

  • moves iodides into follicular cell make hormone
  • active transport pump move Iodine against concentration gradient
17
Q

Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism (cretinism, myxedema, simple simple goiter) and hyperthyroidism (Grave’s disease).

            hyperthyroidism (list)
A
  1. hyperthyroidism

2. Graves Disease

18
Q

Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism (cretinism, myxedema, simple goiter)

           Hypothyroidism
A

Hypo= too little

  1. Hypothyroidism Infantile: cretinism
    • Stunted growth, abnormal bone formation, intellectual disability, sluggishness
  2. Hypothyroidism Adult:
    • low metabolic rate=weight gain, sensitivity to cold, sluggishness, poor appetite, swollen tissues, mental dullness
19
Q

Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism (cretinism, myxedema, simple goiter)

            Myxedema
A
  • thickening and swelling of the skin

- caused by an accumulation of tissue products

20
Q

Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism (cretinism, myxedema, simple goiter)

             Simple goiter
A
  • Deficiency of thyroid hormone due to iodine deficiency, because no thyroid hormones inhibit pituitary release of TSH
  • thyroid is overstimulated and enlarges but functions below normal
21
Q

Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hyperthyroidism (Grave’s disease).
hyperthryoidism

A 
cause:
--overstimulating gland
Consequences
-High metabolic rate
-sensitivity to heat
-restlessness
-hyperactivity
-weight loss
-protruding eyes
-goiter
22
Q

Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hyperthyroidism (Grave’s disease).
Grave’s disease

A 
Cause:
-Autoantibodies bind TSH receptors on thyroid cell membranes, mimicking action of TSH
-overstimulating gland
Consequences
-exopthalmia (protrusion of the eyes
-goiter
-loss weight
-restless ness
23
Q

Figure 13.16

A
  • Feedback
  • Checks and balances
  • expresses -> too much TRH = too much TSH
  • Places could go wrong:
  • hypothalamus
  • anterior pituitary
  • thyroid
24
Q

Describe the source, function, and regulation of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone, and discuss how these two hormones work together to regulate blood levels of calcium. [Review BIOL 225]

            *Parathyroid Hormone (figure 13.26-.27)
A
  1. Source:
    -parathyroid glands- embedded in thyroid gland
  2. Function:
    -regulate blood level of calcium
    ~increase blood calcium and phosphate through actions in the bones, kidneys, and intestine
    • form own Vitamin D
  3. Regulation: figure 13.27
25
Q

Describe the source, function, and regulation of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone, and discuss how these two hormones work together to regulate blood levels of calcium. [Review BIOL 225]

*discuss how these two hormones work together to regulate blood levels of calcium.

A

They have opposite effects to help maintain calcium ion homeostasis

figure 7.14 pg 211

26
Q

Describe the anatomy of the adrenal gland.

             Adrenal Medulla
A
  • center- Chromaffin cells: make hormone
  • extension of sypmathetic nervous system
  • Hormones are amines (water-soluble)
27
Q

Describe the anatomy of the adrenal gland.

           Adrenal Cortex
A
  • surface- (epithelial layers forming 3 zones)
  • glandular
  • hormones are steroids (transcription-new protein)
28
Q

Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones (catecholamines) from the adrenal medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine.

             epinephrine
A
  • Heart
    • heart rate increases
    • force of contraction increase
  • Blood vessels
    • vasodilation, especially important in skeletal muscles at onset of fight or flight
  • Systemic blood pressure
    • some increase due to increased cardiac output
  • Airways
    • dilation
  • Reticular formation of brainstem
    • activate
  • Liver
    • promotes breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increasing blood sugar level
  • metabolic rate
    • increases
29
Q

Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones (catecholamines) from the adrenal medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine.

                 norepinephrine.
A
  • Heart
    • heart rate increases
    • force of contraction increases
  • Blood vessels
    • vasococstriction in skin and viscera shifts blood flow to other areas, such as exercising skeletal muscles
  • Systemic blood pressure
    • some increase due to increased cardiac output and vasoconstriction
  • Airways
    • some dilation
  • Reticular formation of brainstem
    • little effect
  • Liver
    • little effect on blood glucose level
  • metabolic rate
    • increases
30
Q

Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the adrenal cortex: mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol), sex hormones (adrenal androgens and estrogen).

             Cortisol

figure 13.32-.33

A

Category: Glucocorticoids- blood levels of glucose

Function:

  • promote gluconeogenesis- create new glucose molecules
  • inhibit protein synthesis
  • increase utilization of fatty acids

Regulation:

  • CRH- hypothalamus
  • ACTH- anterior pituitary
31
Q

Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the adrenal cortex: mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol), sex hormones (adrenal androgens and estrogen).

             Sex Hormones
A

Function:
-supplement sex hormones from the gonads; may be converted into estrogen

Regulation:
-not straight forward

reason why male and females have different muscle and skeletal structure and physical characteristics

32
Q

Explain the causes and consequences of the following adrenal cortex conditions: Cushing syndrome, Addison disease.

            Addison disease

clinical app 13.3

A

-adrenal cortex does not secrete hormones sufficiently

Causes:

  • autoimmunity
  • infection- tuberculosis

Consequences pg 513

33
Q

Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the pancreas: glucagon, insulin, pancreatic somatostatin.

                   Insulin (beta cells)

figure 13.36

A

Function: lowers blood glucose levels
-promotes facilitated diffusion (move w/gradient, passive, protein)
*glucose through adipose and muscle cell membranes
-stimulates glycogen synthesis (glycogen from glucose)
- inhibits conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose
-enhances synthesis of proteins and fats
Regulation:
-blood glucose cencertation

34
Q

Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the pancreas: glucagon, insulin, pancreatic somatostatin.

          Pancreatic Somatostatin (delta cells)
A

Function:

  • helps regulate carbohydrates
  • inhibits secretion of both glucagon and insulin (stops so don’t over shoot on negative feedback loop)

Regulation:
-not determined

35
Q

Distinguish between stress and stressor, and between physical and psychological stress.

     physical and psychological stress
A 
Physical Stress: 
   -body- threatens tissues
       ex: *heat or cold
Psychological Stress:
   -"will to live"
   -results from thoughts about real or imagined dangers, personal losses, unpleasant social interactions, or any threatening factors
       ex: *anger, depression
  -pleasant stimuli= joy
36
Q

Describe the events of the short-term and long-term stages of the general adaptation (stress) response.

           long-term

figure 13.37, table table 13.13

A
  • adjustment
  • resistance stage
  • Adrenal cortex- cortisol released
  • Anterior Pituitary- ACTH released

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