Exam 2: Endocrinology- second half Flashcards
Describe the anatomy of the thyroid gland.
Figures 13.18-.19
- Follicle:
- Folliclular cells (basketball itself)
- Colloid (hallow center of ball)
- extrafollicular cells (C cells)
- make different hormone
- external to follicle
Describe the function and regulation of triiodothyronine and thyroxine (both are tyrosine derivatives).
triiodothyronine (T3)
figure 13.20
Function:
- Increases rate of energy release from carbohydrates
- increase rate of protein synthesis
- accelerates growth- make new cells
- stimulates activity in the nervous system
Regulation:
-TSH from the anterior pituitary gland
5x more potent than thyroxine; so takes less to get same effect
Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism (cretinism, myxedema, simple goiter) and hyperthyroidism (Grave’s disease).
hypothyroidism (list)
- Hypothyroidism Infantile
- Hypothyroidism Adult:
- Myxedema
- Simple Goiter
cause: could be autoimmune: autoantibodies destroy own thyroid cells
Describe the source, function, and regulation of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone, and discuss how these two hormones work together to regulate blood levels of calcium. [Review BIOL 225]
*Calcitonin
- Source:
- synthesized in extrafollicluar cells (thyroid gland)
- Function:
-regulate blood level of calcium
~lowers blood calcium and phosphate by inhibiting the release of these 2 ions from bones
~ increasing the rate at which calcium and phosphate ions are deposited in bones
-increases excretion of calcium by the kidneys - Regulation:
- elevated blood calcium ion concentration
- digestive hormones
Describe the anatomy of the adrenal gland.
- Adrenal Medulla
- Adrenal Cortex
figure 13.28-.29
Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones (catecholamines) from the adrenal medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine.
figure 13.30
-synthsized by chromaffin cells (adrenal cortex)
Function:
**see other cards
Regulation:
-Nervous system
Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the adrenal cortex: mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol), sex hormones (adrenal androgens and estrogen).
aldosterone
Category: Mineralocorticoids- mineral levels
Function:
-Helps regulate the concentration of extracellular electrolytes by conserving sodium ions and excreting potassium ions
-raise blood Na+, lower levels of K+
(membrane- Na+ out higher than K+ inside)
Regulation:
-Electrolyte concentrations in body fluids and reninagiostensin system
-circulating levels of ions in plasma
(GREAT ESSAY ?)
Explain the causes and consequences of the following adrenal cortex conditions: Cushing syndrome, Addison disease.
Cushing Syndrome
clinical app 13.3
-hypersecretion of cortisol
Causes
-adrenal tumor- all hormone effected
-too much ACTH- only cortisol effected
-cortiosteroid drug use (supplements)- stop natural feedback
consequences pg 513
Describe the anatomy of the pancreas.
figures 13.34-.35
- elongated
- posterior to stomach
- duct attaches pancreas to the first section of the small intestine
~exocrine function
~endocrine function
-blood regulation
-secretory cells in pancreatic islets
Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the pancreas: glucagon, insulin, pancreatic somatostatin.
Glucagon (alpha cells)
figure 13.36
Function:
*raises blood glucose levels
-stimulates the liver to break down glycogen and convert noncarbohydrates into glucose
-stimulates breakdown of fats
~ Glycogenolysis: break down (muscle, liver)
~Gluconeogenesis: promote build up (lipids, protein)
Regulation:
-blood glucose concentration
Explain the causes and consequences of diabetes mellitus (types 1 and 2).
clinical app 13.4
Type 1: insulin-dependent
- childhood-most
- Cause:
- autoimmune- body destroy sell (attack beta cells)
Type 2: non-insulin-dependent
- overweight
- Cause:
- loss sensitivity- body produce insulin but can’t recognize it
Describe the source, function, and regulation of melatonin.
Source: synthesized form serotonin -pineal gland Function: -circadian rhythms (sleep/wake rhythms) Regulation: -impulses from retina
Distinguish between stress and stressor, and between physical and psychological stress.
stress and stressor
Stress: response to factors perceived as life-threatening
stressor: a factor capable of stimulating a stress response
Describe the events of the short-term and long-term stages of the general adaptation (stress) response.
Short-Term
figure 13.37, table table 13.13
- immediate
- “Fight or flight”
- alarm stage
*adrenal medulla- epinephrine, norepinephrine
Describe the function and regulation of triiodothyronine and thyroxine (both are tyrosine derivatives).
Thyroxine (T4)
figure 13.20
Function:
- Increases rate of energy release from carbohydrates
- increase rate of protein synthesis
- accelerates growth- make new cells
- stimulates activity in the nervous system
Regulation:
-TSH from the anterior pituitary gland
more plentiful in blood stream than Triiodothyronine
General information about triiodothyronine and thyroxine (both are tyrosine derivatives).
figure 13.20
Iodine pump:
- moves iodides into follicular cell make hormone
- active transport pump move Iodine against concentration gradient
Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism (cretinism, myxedema, simple simple goiter) and hyperthyroidism (Grave’s disease).
hyperthyroidism (list)
- hyperthyroidism
2. Graves Disease
Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism (cretinism, myxedema, simple goiter)
Hypothyroidism
Hypo= too little
- Hypothyroidism Infantile: cretinism
- Stunted growth, abnormal bone formation, intellectual disability, sluggishness
- Hypothyroidism Adult:
- low metabolic rate=weight gain, sensitivity to cold, sluggishness, poor appetite, swollen tissues, mental dullness
Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism (cretinism, myxedema, simple goiter)
Myxedema
- thickening and swelling of the skin
- caused by an accumulation of tissue products
Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism (cretinism, myxedema, simple goiter)
Simple goiter
- Deficiency of thyroid hormone due to iodine deficiency, because no thyroid hormones inhibit pituitary release of TSH
- thyroid is overstimulated and enlarges but functions below normal
Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hyperthyroidism (Grave’s disease).
hyperthryoidism
cause: --overstimulating gland Consequences -High metabolic rate -sensitivity to heat -restlessness -hyperactivity -weight loss -protruding eyes -goiter
Explain the causes and consequences of the following thyroid conditions: hyperthyroidism (Grave’s disease).
Grave’s disease
Cause: -Autoantibodies bind TSH receptors on thyroid cell membranes, mimicking action of TSH -overstimulating gland Consequences -exopthalmia (protrusion of the eyes -goiter -loss weight -restless ness
Figure 13.16
- Feedback
- Checks and balances
- expresses -> too much TRH = too much TSH
- Places could go wrong:
- hypothalamus
- anterior pituitary
- thyroid
Describe the source, function, and regulation of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone, and discuss how these two hormones work together to regulate blood levels of calcium. [Review BIOL 225]
*Parathyroid Hormone (figure 13.26-.27)
- Source:
-parathyroid glands- embedded in thyroid gland - Function:
-regulate blood level of calcium
~increase blood calcium and phosphate through actions in the bones, kidneys, and intestine- form own Vitamin D
- Regulation: figure 13.27
Describe the source, function, and regulation of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone, and discuss how these two hormones work together to regulate blood levels of calcium. [Review BIOL 225]
*discuss how these two hormones work together to regulate blood levels of calcium.
They have opposite effects to help maintain calcium ion homeostasis
figure 7.14 pg 211
Describe the anatomy of the adrenal gland.
Adrenal Medulla
- center- Chromaffin cells: make hormone
- extension of sypmathetic nervous system
- Hormones are amines (water-soluble)
Describe the anatomy of the adrenal gland.
Adrenal Cortex
- surface- (epithelial layers forming 3 zones)
- glandular
- hormones are steroids (transcription-new protein)
Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones (catecholamines) from the adrenal medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine.
epinephrine
- Heart
- heart rate increases
- force of contraction increase
- Blood vessels
- vasodilation, especially important in skeletal muscles at onset of fight or flight
- Systemic blood pressure
- some increase due to increased cardiac output
- Airways
- dilation
- Reticular formation of brainstem
- activate
- Liver
- promotes breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increasing blood sugar level
- metabolic rate
- increases
Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones (catecholamines) from the adrenal medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine.
norepinephrine.
- Heart
- heart rate increases
- force of contraction increases
- Blood vessels
- vasococstriction in skin and viscera shifts blood flow to other areas, such as exercising skeletal muscles
- Systemic blood pressure
- some increase due to increased cardiac output and vasoconstriction
- Airways
- some dilation
- Reticular formation of brainstem
- little effect
- Liver
- little effect on blood glucose level
- metabolic rate
- increases
Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the adrenal cortex: mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol), sex hormones (adrenal androgens and estrogen).
Cortisol
figure 13.32-.33
Category: Glucocorticoids- blood levels of glucose
Function:
- promote gluconeogenesis- create new glucose molecules
- inhibit protein synthesis
- increase utilization of fatty acids
Regulation:
- CRH- hypothalamus
- ACTH- anterior pituitary
Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the adrenal cortex: mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol), sex hormones (adrenal androgens and estrogen).
Sex Hormones
Function:
-supplement sex hormones from the gonads; may be converted into estrogen
Regulation:
-not straight forward
reason why male and females have different muscle and skeletal structure and physical characteristics
Explain the causes and consequences of the following adrenal cortex conditions: Cushing syndrome, Addison disease.
Addison disease
clinical app 13.3
-adrenal cortex does not secrete hormones sufficiently
Causes:
- autoimmunity
- infection- tuberculosis
Consequences pg 513
Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the pancreas: glucagon, insulin, pancreatic somatostatin.
Insulin (beta cells)
figure 13.36
Function: lowers blood glucose levels
-promotes facilitated diffusion (move w/gradient, passive, protein)
*glucose through adipose and muscle cell membranes
-stimulates glycogen synthesis (glycogen from glucose)
- inhibits conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose
-enhances synthesis of proteins and fats
Regulation:
-blood glucose cencertation
Describe the function and regulation of the following hormones from the pancreas: glucagon, insulin, pancreatic somatostatin.
Pancreatic Somatostatin (delta cells)
Function:
- helps regulate carbohydrates
- inhibits secretion of both glucagon and insulin (stops so don’t over shoot on negative feedback loop)
Regulation:
-not determined
Distinguish between stress and stressor, and between physical and psychological stress.
physical and psychological stress
Physical Stress:
-body- threatens tissues
ex: *heat or cold
Psychological Stress:
-"will to live"
-results from thoughts about real or imagined dangers, personal losses, unpleasant social interactions, or any threatening factors
ex: *anger, depression
-pleasant stimuli= joyDescribe the events of the short-term and long-term stages of the general adaptation (stress) response.
long-term
figure 13.37, table table 13.13
- adjustment
- resistance stage
- Adrenal cortex- cortisol released
- Anterior Pituitary- ACTH released
