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A and P 2 > Exam 1: General and Special Senses > Flashcards

Exam 1: General and Special Senses Flashcards

1
Q

Distinguish between the general senses and the special senses.

General Senses

A
  1. receptors widely distributed throughout the body
  2. Individual cells
  3. Exteroception:
    1. Skin
    2. Surface
      1. Touch and pressure, temp., pain
  4. Interoception (visceroception)
    1. Inside
      1. Internal organs (stomach, gallbladder)
  5. Proprioception
    1. In between
      1. Muscles, tendons, bones
    2. Body position
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2
Q

Distinguish between the general senses and the special senses.

Special Senses

A
  1. More specialized receptors and are confined to structures in the head such as the eyes and ears
  2. Organ (nose, ear)
  3. sense of smell; sense of taste; sense of hearing; sense of sight
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3
Q

Name five types of sensory receptors, explain the general function of each, and describe how stimulation of a receptor leads to the generation of sensory impulses (review Nervous System I).

A
  1. Chemorectpros
  2. nociceptors
  3. Thermoreceptors
  4. Mechanoreceptors
  5. Photoreceptors
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4
Q

Name five types of sensory receptors, explain the general function of each, and describe how stimulation of a receptor leads to the generation of sensory impulses (review Nervous System I).

Chemoreceptors

A
  • General function:
    • sensory receptor that detects certain chemical stimuli in the environment.
  • how stimulation leads to impulses:
    • respond to changes in the concentration of chemicals

in internal organs: decect change in blood concentrations (O2, H+, glucose and others)

ex: Smell and taste

In nose and internal organs

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5
Q

Name five types of sensory receptors, explain the general function of each, and describe how stimulation of a receptor leads to the generation of sensory impulses (review Nervous System I).

Nociceptors

A
  • General function:
    • Deformation/ displaced- respond to tissue damage
  • How stimulation of a receptor leads to an impules:
    • Can be triggered by different things
      • Chemical (like to be inside; chemicals spill out of cells)
      • mechanical
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6
Q

Name five types of sensory receptors, explain the general function of each, and describe how stimulation of a receptor leads to the generation of sensory impulses (review Nervous System I).

Thermoreceptors

A
  • General function:
    • sense change in temperature
  • How stimulation of a receptor leads to an impules:
    • temperature change

warm and cold receptors

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7
Q

Name five types of sensory receptors, explain the general function of each, and describe how stimulation of a receptor leads to the generation of sensory impulses (review Nervous System I).

Mechanorecpetors

A
  • General function:
    • sense mechanical forces by detecting changes that deform the receptor
  • How stimulation of a receptor leads to an impules:
    • physical contact (Touch)
    • physical displacement

Ex: Measure blood pressure, skin (physical contact), ear (balance, sound), muscle length and tension

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8
Q

Name five types of sensory receptors, explain the general function of each, and describe how stimulation of a receptor leads to the generation of sensory impulses (review Nervous System I).

Photoreceptors

A
  • General function:
    • respond to light
  • How stimulation of a receptor leads to an impules:

Light (eye)

rods and cones

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9
Q
  1. Sensory impulses table 12.1; review chapter 10 pg. 377
A
  1. Axon to brain
    1. Hearing- temporal
    2. Vision-occipital
    3. ___-pariatal
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10
Q

Differentiate between sensation, perception, and projection.

Sensation

A
  1. Occurs when threshold is reached and action potentials cause the brain to become AWARE of that sensory event
  2. “smells good”
  3. Ex: vision- round object
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11
Q

Differentiate between sensation, perception, and projection.

Perception

A

Brain interprets sensory impulse

Identified the source

ex: basketball (kind)

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12
Q

Differentiate between sensation, perception, and projection.

projection

A

Brain projects sensation back to its apparent source

Where is it coming from?

Important for general senses; pinpoint the region of stimulation

Ex: eyes

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13
Q

Describe sensory adaptation and distinguish between central and peripheral adaptation.

A
  1. Getting used to something because of repeated stimulation
  2. Change (odor, temperature)
  3. Adapt: mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors
  4. Don’t adapt: photoreceptors, nociceptors (pain)
  5. Peripheral
    1. Receptor- hyperpolarize, change threshold (achieve threshold less) as long as constant signal
  6. Central:
    1. Alter at synapse- block neurotransmitter (postsynaptic may not achieve threshold)
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14
Q

Describe the roles of ___, ___, and ___ in the senses of touch and pressure. Table 12.2; figure 12.1

A
  1. free nerve endings
  2. tactile (Meissner’s) corpuscles
  3. lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles
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15
Q

Role of: free nerve endings

A
  • function:
    • detect changes in pressure
      • sensation:
        • touch, pressure
  • role:
    • responsible for the sensation of itching
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16
Q

Role of: tactile (Meissner’s) corpuscles

A

Touch receptor- fine touch- distinguish touch

  1. Right under epidermis
  2. Nerve embedded in it
  3. Fingers, lips
  • Function:
    • detect objects moving over the skin
      • sensation:
        • touch and texture
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17
Q

Role of: lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles

A
  1. Organ; connective tissue
  2. Pressure receptor
  • Function:
    • detect changes in pressure
      • sensation:
        • deep pressure, vibrations, fullness in viscera
        • ex:

Dermis (skin), also in internal organs (ex: pancreas)

Stomach ache- really stomach stretched and pancreas is squished

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18
Q

Describe the roles of warm receptors and cold receptors in the sense of temperature.

A
  1. Warm receptors (77°F-113°F) (25C-45C)
    1. respond to warm temperatures
      1. close to 113- trigger pain receptores (buring sensation)
  2. Cold receptors (50°F-68°F) (10C-20C)
    1. respond to cold temperatures
      1. below 50- trigger pain receptors- freezing sensation
  3. In between- (68°F-77°F)
    1. No different than skin (normal skin temperature)
    2. Different cobinations of recepters- both adapt
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19
Q

Describe the role of nociceptors in the sense of pain.

A
  1. Don’t adapt
  2. Free nerve endings
  3. Skin, internal tissue (lack in brain)
  4. Protect
  5. Mechanical and chemical
  6. role: detect tissue damage
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20
Q

Describe visceral pain and the phenomenon of referred pain. Figures 12.2-12.3

Visceral Pain

A

​

Pain receptors are the only receptors whose stimulation produces sensation​

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21
Q

Describe visceral pain and the phenomenon of referred pain. Figures 12.2-12.3

referred pain

A

Coming from some part of body other than part being stimulated

Ex: pain in left arm

Share nerve pathways (brain can’t determine origin), so it projects where pain began

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22
Q

Distinguish between fast and slow pain pathways, and describe how pain awareness may be altered.

Fast pain pathways

A

A-delta fibers

Myelinated- impulses rapidly

Acute pain

Sharp, immediate

Exact location (pinpoint)

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23
Q

Distinguish between fast and slow pain pathways, and describe how pain awareness may be altered.

Slow pain pathways

A

C fibers

Unmyelinated- conduct impulses slowly

Chronic pain

Sore, achy (next day), dull, delay

Broad section

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24
Q

Distinguish between fast and slow pain pathways, and describe how pain awareness may be altered.

pain awareness

A
  1. Thalamus
    • Make it here before have sensation
  2. Cerebral Cortex (parietal lobe)
    • Interpret and preserve what kind it is
  3. Natural analgesics- minimize pain- similar idea of adaptation
    • Enkephalins and serotonin
    1. Inhibit presynaptic neurons in dorsal horn
    2. supress acute and chronic pain impulses
    3. Alter what happens at synapse
    • Endorphins
    1. Higher up in brain- Pituitary gland, hypothalamus
    2. relay pain info
    3. Poppies- work same way
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25
Q

Describe the roles of muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs in proprioception.

Proprioception

A

proprioceptors are mechanorecptiors that send information to the CNS about body position and the length and tension of skeletal muscle

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26
Q

Describe the roles of muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs in proprioception.

Muscle spindles

A

detect changes in muscle length

Respond to stretch- muscle relaxed

Stretch reflex- stimulus

Bicep (when straighten arm)

end of a sensory nerve fiber wrapped around it:

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27
Q

Describe the roles of muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs in proprioception.

Golgi Tendon

A

detect changes in muscle tension

-*9Tension in tendon when contracted

Triceps (when straighten arm)

are in tendons close to their attachment to muscles\

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28
Q

Describe the sense of smell, including the roles of ciliated bipolar neurons and the olfactory nerve.

A

Olfactory organs figure 12.5 and 12.6

  • Ethmoid bone, nasal cavity
  • Supporting columnar epithelial cells- Olfactory epithelium
    • Replaced

Olfactory nerve pathways to limbic system

  • Nerve pathway- neuro signal to limbi system (tied to emotion)
  • Protective- memories

Olfactory stimulation- 10,000 different smells

  • Olfactory code
  • Receptors exposed to environment
    • Can replace self (damage, exposed)
  • As age not replaced as rapidly- so smell decreases
  • Smell and taste coordinate
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29
Q

Ciliated Bipolar neurons

A

Olfactory receptor cells

  • Ciliated bipolar neurons; 400 different types
  • Role: cilia project into the nasal cavity and are the sensitive portion of receptor cells
  • Odorant molecule bind, depolarizing cells, generating action potentials
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30
Q

Describe how the olfactory code allows us to distinguish specific odors.

A

Subpopulations all different

Probably stimulate more then 1 receptor

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31
Q

Describe the sense of taste, including the roles of taste buds and the taste nerve pathways.

Nerve pathway

A
  • sensory impulses from taste receptor cells conduct impuleses into the medulla oblongata
    • Facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus nerves
  • then impulses ascend to the thalamus and are directed to the gustatory cortex of the verebrum (located in the insula) (parietal lobe)
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32
Q

Role of taste buds

A

special organs of taste

each taste bud includs group of taste cells that function as sensory receptors (taste receptors)

  • Taste buds ~10,000 on depressions

Receptors are protected

Supporting cells

Taste hairs

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33
Q

Describe how the primary taste sensations contribute to the many flavors we experience.

A

5 Primary tastes

  1. Salt- depolarize
  2. Sweet- sugar
  3. Bitter
  4. Sour-acid
  5. Omani- MSG
  • All have different type of molecules ( different code)
  • Based on chemical structure of molecule
  • Other recognized tastes
    • Metallic (contain metal)- ex: blood
34
Q

Describe the anatomy of the external ear and middle ear and explain the general function of each.

External ear

A
  • Auricle
    • to collect sound and acting as a funnel amplifies this and directs it to the auditory canal.
  • External acoustic meatus
    • allows efficient sound transmission from the environment to the tympanic membrane.
35
Q

Describe the anatomy of the external ear and middle ear and explain the general function of each.

Middle Ear

A
  • Tympanic membrane to oval window (under the stapes)
    • 1st hit make membrane vibrate
      • oval window: vibration of the stapes acts like a piston at the oval window, transfers vibrations to a fluid within the inner ear (vibrations stimulate hearing receptors)
  • Auditory ossicles- air filled space- synovial joints
    • Malleus- physically attached tympanic membrane
      • vibrates in unison with membrane
    • Incus
      • malleus vibrates incus
    • stapes
      • incus passes movement
36
Q

Describe the tympanic reflex and explain its importance.

A
  • Muscle contract minimize vibration of bone
  • Need time to adapt
  • Amplification of sound (22 times)
    • Only works on sounds that gradually louder
    • Works because tympanic membrane (large) oval window (smaller)- magnifies force
37
Q

Describe the role of the auditory (Eustachian) tube.

A

Open to throat

Altitude changes

“pop”- snap back into place

38
Q

Describe the anatomy of the inner ear labyrinth. Figures 12.11-12.12

A
  • Labyrinth system
    • Bony (osseous) labyrinth filled with perilymph
      • Sleeping bag (not touch top or bottom because of fluid)
    • Membranous labyrinth filled with endolymph
      • Yourself
    • Cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals

Cochlea

  • Scala vestibuli
    • Connected to oval window
  • Scala tympani
    • Connected to round window
  • Round window
  • Cochlear duct
    • yourself
  • Vestibular membrane
    • Skin of front
  • Basilar membrane
    • Skin on back
      • Receptors on here (covered w/receptor hair cells)
39
Q

Explain how sound waves cause the hair cells of the spiral organ (organ of Corti) to vibrate. table 12.4

A
  • Receptor= hair cells (~16,000)
    • Attached to nerves; have to stimulate hair to stimulate nerve
  • Tectorial membrane
    • Between vestibular and basilar membrane
    • Attached to hair cells
    • Help anchor (vibrate w/out breaking)
  • different frequencies of bibration move different regions along the length of the basilar membrane
    • bends the hairs, activtating them
40
Q

How this signal is transmitted to the brain along auditory pathways for interpretation of both pitch and volume. table 12.4

A
  • Pitch =frequency of sound waves (human range=20-20,000 Hz)
  • Volume –frequency of potential s(magnitude)
  • Auditory nerve Pathways
    • Cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve
    • Auditory vortex of temporal lobesFrequency, what nerve
      • Ex: send impulse slowly (soft sound) (less frequency)
    • Sound localization:
      • Cross-over, but different message
41
Q

Explain the difference between conductive deafness and sensorineural deafness.

Conductive Deafness

A
  • Interference with conduction of vibrations to the inner ear
  • Tore ear drum
  • Arthritis in bones or joints of ear
  • Can be corrected with hearing aids (cochlear implants)
42
Q

Explain the difference between conductive deafness and sensorineural deafness.

Sensorineural deafness

A
  • Effects nerve pathway or receptors are damage
    • Auditory nerve or cochlea
    • Hair cells damaged first
  • Ear may be fine but the nerve pathway isn’t
  • Injury, stroke (or tumor CNS) to auditory cortex
  • Very loud sounds can cause
  • (Turing off a gene will allow receptor cells to regenerate)
43
Q

Define static equilibrium, and describe the role of the macula in static equilibrium.

Define

A
  • Define:
    • Maintenance of balance when the head and body are not in motion
44
Q

Define static equilibrium, and describe the role of the macula in static equilibrium.

Role of the macula

A
  • Describe the role of the macula:
    • Organs (utricle and saccule) within vestibule figure 12.17
    • Macula figure 12.18-.19)
      • Hair cells and supporting cells inside associated with an organ
      • One in utricle; one in saccule
  • Role:
    • Respond to changes in head position
    • Have otoliths and gelatinous membrane to make it harder to stimulate so sound won’t stimulate; add weight so responsive to changes in postion only gravity
    • Hair of cells bend, stimulating the hair cells and they signal their associate neurons (CNS by vestibulocochlear nerve)
      • brain responds by sending motor impulses to skeletal muscles
45
Q

Define dynamic equilibrium, and describe the role of the crista ampullaris in dynamic equilibrium.

Define

A

Define:

Maintenance of balance when the head and body are suddenly moved or rotated

46
Q

Define dynamic equilibrium, and describe the role of the crista ampullaris in dynamic equilibrium.

A

Describe the role of the crista ampullaris

  • Semicircular canals (anterior, posterior, and lateral) figure 12.17
    • Right angles to each other
  • Ampulla containing crista ampullaris figure 12.20-.21
    • crista ampullaris: sensory hairs cells and supporting cells
      • covered with cupula so don’t vibrate with sound
    • When head or torso moves the semicircular canals move but fluid inside remains stationary. This bends the cupula in opposite direction, and hairs embedded in it also bend. Moving of hairs stimulates signal to neuron.
    • All signals to cerebellum via the vestibular branch
47
Q

List several accessory organs associated with the sense of sight, and explain the role of each.

List several accessory organs

A
  1. Eyelid
  2. Conjunctiva
  3. Lacrimal apparatus
  4. Extrinsic Skeletal muscles
48
Q

List several accessory organs associated with the sense of sight, and explain the role of each.

Eyelid

A

Role:

  • Skin: covers the lid’s outer surface and fuses with its inner lining near the margin of the lid
  • Muscle: move the eyelid- open and closes
  • Connective tissue:
    • Help give it form
    • Secretes oil so the eyelids don’t stick together
49
Q

List several accessory organs associated with the sense of sight, and explain the role of each.

Conjunctiva

A

Role:

Lines the inner surface of the eyelids, folds back to cover the anterior surface of the eyeball except cornea

50
Q

List several accessory organs associated with the sense of sight, and explain the role of each.

Lacrimal Apparatus

A

Role:

  • Remove debris and clean eye
  • Lacrimal gland: secrete tears continuously
  • Ducts: carry the tears into nasal cavity
  • Glandular cells: secrete tear like liquid: moistens and lubricates the surface of the eye and lids
    • Lysozyme enzyme that has antibacterial properties
51
Q

List several accessory organs associated with the sense of sight, and explain the role of each.

Extrinsic skeletal muscles

A

Move eye in different directions

  • Rotates eye
52
Q

Describe the anatomy of the tunics of the eye ___, ___, and ___.

A
  • outer fibrous Tunic
  • middle vascular tunic
  • inner nervous tunic
53
Q

Outer Fibrous Tunic

A
  1. Cornea
  2. Sclera
  3. Optic Nerve
54
Q

Middle Vascular Tunic

A
  1. Choroid coat
  2. cilliary body and lens
  3. Iris
  4. Anterior cavity and aqueous humor
55
Q

Inner Nervous Tunic

A
  1. Retina
  2. Fovea centralis within macula lutea
  3. optic disc
  4. posterior cavity and vitreous humor
56
Q

Cornea

A
  • No blood vessels (like epidermis)- nutrients from anterior cavity deliver fluid
  • Covers iris
  • Helps focus entering light rays
    • light transmission and refraction

outer fibrous tunic

57
Q

Sclera

A
  • White portion of the eye
  • Made of collage (regular pattern)
    • Protection eye and is an attachment for muscles
  • Has blood vessels

outer fibrous tunic

58
Q

Optic Nerve

A
  • In back of eye
  • Many cells- axons join together

outer fibrous tunic

59
Q

Choroid coat

A

Middle Vascular Tunic

(thin pink line)- in picture

Melanocytes- melanin (brown)

Inside needs to be dark- light dramatic contrast

  • blood supply; pigment prevents reflection
60
Q

Ciliary body and lens

A

Middle Vascular Tunic

Ciliary body:

  • Surrounds lens
  • Suspensory ligaments- hold lens in position
    • Ligaments attach to lens
  • accommodation; controls light intensity

Lens:

  • Rest muscles- change tension ligaments – changing flexibility of lens (objects- distance and close up)
  • Elastic tissue (change shape)
  • Return to original when tension released)
61
Q

Iris

A

Middle Vascular Tunic

  • Color portion of the eye
  • Lies between the cornea and the lens
  • Muscle
  • Opening= pupil
  • Dual intervention- (do opposite)
    • Sympathetic- circular (dim light)
    • Parasympathetic-radial (bright light)
  • accommodation; controls light intensity
62
Q

Anterior Cavity and aqueous humor

A

Aqueous humor:

  • Watery fluid circulates through the pupil
  • Produced by Ciliary body (transparent)
  • Fills the space between the cornea and the lens
  • Provides nutrients and maintain the shape of the front of the eye
63
Q

Retina

A
  • Not attached
  • Contains the visual receptor cells (photoreceptors)- impulse conduction
  • Continuous with the optic nerve
64
Q

Fovea centralis within macula lutea

A

Fovea centralis

  • In retina
  • Depression in center- produces the sharpest vision

Macula lutea

  • Yellowish spot in central region of the retina
65
Q

Optic Disc

A
  • Nerve fibers from the retina leave the eye and become the optic nerve
  • Lacks receptor cells so commonly referred to as the blind spot
66
Q

Posterior cavity and vitreous humor

A

Posterior cavity

  • Enclosed by the lens, ciliary body and retina

Vitreous humor

  • Jellylike fluid that fills the posterior cavity
67
Q

Define light refraction and state how various surfaces and fluids influence light refraction.

Define

A

Define: 12.35

  • Refraction is the bending of light as it passes between media of different densities
  • Lens: always convex- can be more or less, but never concave
68
Q

Define light refraction and state how various surfaces and fluids influence light refraction.

Surfaces

A

Influence:

  • Surfaces 12.36
    • Lens with Convex
      • causes light waves to converge (get closer)
    • Lens with Concave
      • causes light waves to diverge (spread out)
  • Fluids
69
Q

Describe the accommodation reflex, including the roles of the ciliary body and lens. 12.29

A
  • Tension on the suspensory ligaments relaxes, the elastic capsule rebounds, and the lens surface becomes more convex- occurs when eye focuses to view a close object
  • Ciliary muscles relax the suspensory ligaments
  • Light waves come in differently
    • 20 feet
  • Close (0-20 ft.):
    • Diverge
      • Ciliary muscles contract
      • Ligaments relax
      • Lens is more rounded (thickens)
  • Far away (20+ ft.):
    • Parallel
      • Ciliary muscles relax
      • Tension on the suspensory ligaments increases (contract)
      • Cornea and Lens thins (flattens) (“at rest”)
70
Q

Describe 3 different refraction disorders and explain how each may be corrected with the use of an appropriate lens. Clinical app 12.6

A
  1. Myopia
  2. Hyperopia
  3. Astigmatism
71
Q

Myopia

A

Myopia- Nearsighted

  • Trouble: seeing distance (parallel light)
    • Bend meet in front of retina (“eye to long”)
  • Corrected:
    • Concave lens- shift focal point back
72
Q

Hyperopia

A

Hyperopia- Farsighted

  • Trouble: close up (divergent light)
    • Bend meet behind of retina (“eye to short”)
  • Corrected:
    • Convex lens- shift focal point forward
73
Q

Astigmatism

A

Astigmatism:

  • Reflects a defect in curvature of the cornea or the lens (curvature like a bowl of spoon instead of normal (ball)
  • Some focus other portions blurred and vision is distorted
  • Correct:
    • Corrective lens
74
Q

Compare and contrast the ways the two types of photoreceptors (rods and cones) respond to light and process neural information; identify the different photopigments found in the rods and cones.

A

Respond:

  • Opposite of normal:
    • Need to hyperpolarize to send message
    • Depolarize the message will fail to send
75
Q

Compare and contrast the ways the two types of photoreceptors (rods and cones) respond to light and process neural information; identify the different photopigments found in the rods and cones.

rods

A

Rods: (~100 million) (retina)

  • No color- shades of gray and fuzzy
  • Photopigment:
    • Rhodopsin (opsin + retinal)
      • Synthesized from vitamin A
  • Converging nerve pathways
    • Rods share
      • 3 rods-2 horizontal cells-1 ganglion: brain can’t project back to origin so projects back to all 3 rods
76
Q

Compare and contrast the ways the two types of photoreceptors (rods and cones) respond to light and process neural information; identify the different photopigments found in the rods and cones.

Cones

A

Cones: (~3 million) (macula lutia)

  • Images and color- sharp
  • Photopigment:
    • Iodopsin
      • Chlorolabe- green
      • Cyanolabe- blue
      • Erythrolabe- red
  • Unique nerve pathway
    • 1 cone-1 horizontal cell- 1 ganglion cell: brain projects back to 1 cone- have own pathway to brain
77
Q

Distinguish between dark adaption and light adaption.

Dark Adaption

A

Dark adaptation:

  • Adjust- synthesis from scratch to make rhodopsin
    • Convert opsin and retinal to rhodopsin
  • Dim light
78
Q

Distinguish between dark adaption and light adaption.

light adaption

A

Light adaption:

Breaking down of rhodopsin

79
Q

Describe stereoscopic vision and the visual nerve pathways.

Stereoscopic Vision

A

Stereoscopic vision: 12.40

  • Each eye gets different images- 20 feet or closer
  • Visual cortex superimposes and interprets the two images
  • Result perception of a single object in 3-D
  • Need hit baseball or catch a ball
  • Poor hand eye coordination- struggle
80
Q

Describe stereoscopic vision and the visual nerve pathways.

visual nerve pathways

A
  • Optic nerves, optic chiasma, optic tracts
    • Chiasma- where cross over
  • Tract
    • Medial of left eye and lateral of right eye form the right tract
    • Medial right eye and lateral of left form left tract
  • Visual cortex of occipital lobes
  • Some images cross over; some don’t
  • Medial side:
    • Cross over communicate with other cortex of occipital lobe; because it’s the only one being picked up by both eyes
  • Peripheral side:
    • Same side don’t cross over

A and P 2 (3 decks)

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