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A&P 2 > Exam 2: Chap 23 > Flashcards

Exam 2: Chap 23 Flashcards

1
Q

two systems that cooperate to supply O2 and eliminate CO2?

A

cardiovascular and respiratory systems

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2
Q

what does the respiratory system provide for?

A

gas exchange

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3
Q

what does the cardiovascular system do?

A

transports the respiratory gasses (O2 and CO2)

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4
Q

respiration

A

the exchange of gases between the atmosphere, blood, and cells. takes place in four steps.

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5
Q

4 steps of respiration

A

pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, transport of respiratory gases, internal respiration

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6
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

movement of air in and out of lungs so that alveoli are continuously refreshed

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7
Q

external respiration

A

gas exchange between air in lungs and blood in capillaries

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8
Q

transport of respiratory gases

A

O2 to tissues, CO2 from tissues

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9
Q

internal respiration

A

gas exchange between blood and tissue cells

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10
Q

what does the respiratory system consist of?

A

nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

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11
Q

upper respiratory system

A

refers to the nose, pharynx, and associated structures

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12
Q

lower respiratory system

A

refers to the larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

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13
Q

conducting zone

A

consists of nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, respiratory muscle, and terminal bronchioles; functions to cleanse, humidify, and warm incoming air

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14
Q

respiratory portion

A

consists of respiratory, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli; actual site of gas exchange

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15
Q

about how many alveoli are in your lungs?

A

enough to fill a tennis court

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16
Q

bony framework of the nose is formed by

A

frontal bone, nasal bones, maxillae, and is covered by hyaline cartilage

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17
Q

interior structures of nose; 4 critical functions?

A

specialized; 1. filter out foreign material 2. moistens and warms air that is inspired 3. location of olfactory receptors 4. resonating chamber to modify speech sounds

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18
Q

internal portion of nose contains what? and communicates with ________ and ________ through the _______.

A

3 conchae; paranasal sinuses and nasopharynx; internal nares (posterior nasal aperture)

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19
Q

3 conchae

A

superior (ethmoid bone), middle (ethmoid bone), inferior (inferior nasal conchae bone); function: increase mucosal surfaces of conchae exposed to the air and enhance turbulence in the nasal cavity

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20
Q

nasal cavity

A

inside of both the external and internal nose

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21
Q

histology of the mucous membranes lining the nasal cavity

A

respiratory epithelium; secretes premucin and enzymes called lysozyme. also secretes defensins, which are a natural antibiotic

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22
Q

defensins

A

natural antibiotic

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23
Q

paranasal sinuses located in what 4 cranial bones?

A
  1. ethmoid
  2. frontal
  3. sphenoid
  4. maxilla
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24
Q

function of sinuses

A

lighten skull, warm, and moisten incoming air, loaded with goblet cells

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25
Q

pharynx (throat)

A

muscular tube lined by a mucous membrane; 5 in long

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26
Q

anatomic regions of pharynx

A

nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

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27
Q

nasopharynx

A

functions in respiration only; contains the uvula, pharyngeal tonsils, eustachian tubes and respiratory epithelium

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28
Q

eustachian tube

A

equalizes pressure between atmosphere/internal ear AKA auditory tube

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29
Q

respiratory epithelium

A

ciliated pseudostratified columnar with goblet cells

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30
Q

oropharynx and laryngopharynx

A

function in digestion and in respiration; lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

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31
Q

larynx (voice box)

A

passageway that connects the pharynx with the trachea

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32
Q

3 major functions of the larynx

A
  1. voice production
  2. patent (open) airway
  3. switching mechanism to send air/food in proper direction
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33
Q

what is the larynx lined with?

A

non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium superior and respiratory epithelium inferior to the vocal cords

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34
Q

what does the larynx contain?

A

thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple is the laryngeal prominence), epiglottis, cricoid cartilage

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35
Q

epiglottis

A

elastic cartilage, covered in taste buds, prevents food from entering the larynx

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36
Q

cricoid cartilage

A

what you cut into during a tracheotomy; connects the larynx and the trachea

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37
Q

what does the larynx contain to produce sound?

A

vocal ligaments that fold to form the true and false vocal cords, which produce sound

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38
Q

taunt vocal cords

A

produce high pitches

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39
Q

relaxed vocal cords

A

produce low pitches

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40
Q

what 5 other structures are necessary to convert sound (which originates from vocal fold vibrations) into recognizable speech?

A
  1. pharynx
  2. tongue
  3. soft palate
  4. lips
  5. teeth
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41
Q

trachea (windpipe) extends from where to where?

A

from larynx to primary bronchi

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42
Q

2 major functions of trachea

A
  1. provide a patent (open) airway
  2. further cleanse, warm, moisten, incoming air.
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43
Q

mucosa of trachea

A

respiratory epithelium: cilia of the epithelium beat in a wave like fashion towards the pharynx to sweep debris away from lungs

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44
Q

submucosa of trachea

A

connective tissue layer: glands produce premucin

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45
Q

adventitia or fibrosa

A

numerous C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage (about 16-20)

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46
Q

trachealis muscle

A

smooth muscle whose contraction decreases the diameter of the trachea; allows the trachea to stretch and remain open while swallowing. if not, you’d choke or suffocate while eating

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47
Q

the carina

A

most inferior of the tracheal cartilage rings; VERY sensitive cough reflex

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48
Q

which bronchi are you more likely to get something lodged in?

A

Right, because it is shorter and more vertical

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49
Q

what happens to the bronchi at the inferior part of the trachea, at the level of the carina?

A

trachea divides into right and left primary (principal) bronchi

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50
Q

what happens to each primary bronchus?

A

subdivides into 3 right and 2 left secondary or lobar bronchi

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51
Q

what happens to the secondary bronchi?

A

branch into tertiary or segmental bronchi, bronchioles and terminal bronchioles

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52
Q

how many total orders of branching?

A

23

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53
Q

structural changes along the bronchial tree

A
  1. The walls of the primary bronchi contain rights of cartilage.
  2. The walls of the bronchioles contain smooth muscle.
  3. Epithelium changes (Clara cells are simple cuboidal cells that secrete Clara cell lipoprotein); cilia are sparse, and mucus is absent (no dust cells) as passageways become smaller
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54
Q

Clara cell lipoprotein

A

secreted by Clara cells; prevent bronchial walls from collapsing in

55
Q

alveolar ducts transition into

A

alveolar sacs

56
Q

alveoli

A

spherical structures located at the terminal ends of the alveolar sacs composed of simple squamous epithelium

57
Q

alveolar walls consist of

A

type 1 alveolar cells, type 2 alveolar (septal) cells, alveolar macrophages (dust cells)

58
Q

type 1 alveolar cells

A

simple squamous, thin as tissue paper, main site of gas exchange, secrete ace (angiotensin converting enzyme)

59
Q

alveolar macrophages (dust cells)

A

engulfs pollen, bacteria, etc.

60
Q

type II alveolar cells (septal cells) (type II pneumocytes)

A

secrete alveolar fluid containing surfactant

61
Q

surfactant

A

reduces surface tension, prevents collapse of alveoli during expiration

62
Q

lungs

A

paired organs in the thoracic cavity; they are enclosed and protected by the pleural (double layered) membrane

63
Q

parietal pleura

A

outer layer - lines the pleural cavity; simple squamous

64
Q

visceral pleura

A

inner layer - sits on top of lungs (aka pulmonary pleura)

65
Q

pleural cavity

A

small potential space between the pleurae, that contains a lubricating fluid (pleural/serous fluid)

66
Q

pleural effusion

A

the pleural cavities may fill with air or blood. may cause a partial or complete collapse of the lung; usually from wounds to the chest

67
Q

pneumothorax

A

pleural cavities fill with air

68
Q

hemothorax

A

pleural cavities fill with blood

69
Q

pleurisy

A

occurs when the pleural membranes become inflamed; less fluid produced, tissue becomes dry and rough, breathe=excruciating pain, sounds like two pieces of leather rubbing together (friction rub)

70
Q

the lungs extend from ____ to _____

A

diaphragm, superior to the clavicles

71
Q

each lung contains

A

a root, a costal (rib) surface, an apex, a base, and a hilus

72
Q

hilus

A

indentation in surface of lung; blood vessels and the primary bronchi enter and leave the lungs at the hilus

73
Q

right lung

A

3 lobes separated by the horizontal and oblique fissures.

74
Q

left lung

A

2 lobes separated by the oblique fissure and a depression (cardiac notch/depression)

75
Q

what do the tertiary bronchi supply?

A

segments of lung tissue called bronchopulmonary segments; 10 segments in each lung

76
Q

bronchopulmonary segment

A

pyramid or triangle shaped part of lung

77
Q

what are bronchopulmonary segments subdivided into?

A

lobules: each lobule contains 5 structures; wrapped in elastic CT

78
Q

5 structures in a lobule

A
  1. lymphatic vessel
  2. venule (small vein)
  3. arteriole (small artery)
  4. terminal bronchiole
  5. respiratory bronchiole.
79
Q

how does the blood enter the lungs?

A

through the pulmonary arteries (pulmonary circulation) and the bronchial arteries. Most of the blood leaves by the pulmonary veins, but some blood drains into the bronchial veins.

80
Q

pulmonary arteries

A

come from the heart to the lungs to get oxygenated

81
Q

pulmonary circulation

A

blood being brought to the lungs to get oxygenated

82
Q

bronchial arteries

A

a branch of descending aorta (thoracic aorta) - feeds blood to lung tissue

83
Q

where does most blood leave through?

A

pulmonary veins (oxygenated) - empties into left atrium

84
Q

what else are the lungs innervated by?

A

pulmonary plexus of the ANS; mainly parasympathetic (dilating); rarely sympathetic

85
Q

3 steps of respiration

A

pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, internal respiration

86
Q

inspiration

A

the process of bringing air into the lungs

87
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

governs the movement of air into and out of the lungs; pressure of gas varies inversely with its volume, assuming temperature is constant; p1v1=p2v2

88
Q

quiet inhalation

A

first step requires the contraction of the diaphragm (mainly) and external intercostals to increase the size of the thoracic cavity

89
Q

inhalation

A

occurs when alveolar pressure falls below atmospheric pressure and the thoracic volume increases.

90
Q

forced inhalation

A

4 accessory muscles of inspiration are utilized: SCM, scalene muscles, pectoralis minor, external intercostals; all muscles increase the height of the thoracic cavity by lifting the ribcage and pulling sternum forward

91
Q

exhalation

A

occurs when the alveolar pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure and the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax; the rib cage lowers and the lungs recoil

92
Q

why is exhalation a passive process?

A

it doesn’t rely on pressure changes; it relies on elastic recoil

93
Q

what does exhalation become active?

A

during labored breathing and when air movement out of the lungs is impeded (asthma)

94
Q

forced expiration

A

employs the contraction of 5 muscles that increase intra-abdominal pressure: latissimus dorsi, internal intercostals, abdominal oblique (internal/external), and transverse abdominis

95
Q

air flows from ___ to ____

A

high to low

96
Q

alveolar surface tension

A

causes the alveoli to assume the smallest diameter possible; must be overcome

97
Q

surfactant allows alteration of

A

allows alteration of the surface tension of the alveoli

98
Q

compliance

A

the ease with which the lungs and thoracic wall can be expanded; determined by lowered surface tension of the alveoli and surfactant

99
Q

high compliance

A

healthy lungs

100
Q

low compliance

A

diminished expansion

101
Q

resistance

A

resistance to the normal flow of air into the bronchi and bronchioles; acute asthma increases resistance

102
Q

asthma

A

disease of immune system; allergic asthma, smoke induced, exercise induced, frigid air exposure, stress induced

103
Q

what can dilate the airways?

A

bronchodilators (albuterol, epinephrine)

104
Q

what 2 gas laws govern the exchange of oxygen and co2 between the blood and alveoli?

A

Dalton’s law and henry’s law

105
Q

Dalton’s law of partial pressures

A

each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure independent of other gases; each gas’ pressure is directly proportional to its percentage in the total gas mixture

106
Q

how is the partial pressure of a gas symbolized?

A

Px

107
Q

Nitrogen narcosis and decompression sickness

A

conditions explained by Henry’s law; Nitrogen is more soluble in lipids than water, it tends to concentrate in the CNS. Rapid ascent decreases the partial pressure of nitrogen abruptly, diffusing it out of the blood stream and trapping it in the interstitial fluid- can cause shocks, seizures, dyspnea, and death

108
Q

gangrene

A

severe infection, bacteria are anaerobic, so oxygen kills them

109
Q

for each 100 ml of oxygenated blood, how is the O2 used?

A

1.5% is dissolved into the plasma, 98.5% is carried with hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin

110
Q

hemoglobin

A

consists of a protein portion called globin and a pigment called heme, which contains 4 atoms of iron

111
Q

fully saturated

A

all 4 heme groups are bound to oxygen

112
Q

partially saturated

A

1,2, or 3 heme groups are bound to oxygen

113
Q

cooperation and affinity

A

after the first O2 molecule binds to iron, the Hb molecule changes shape to allow it to more readily take on additional O2.

114
Q

what is the most important factor that determines how much oxygen combines with hemoglobin?

A

the partial pressure of O2

115
Q

the greater the PO2, the ____ oxygen will combine with hemoglobin

A

more

116
Q

Bohr effect

A

in an acid (low pH) environment, O2 affinity for Hb is decreased and O2 splits more readily from hemoglobin

117
Q

what does low blood pH result from?

A

(acidic) - high PCO2

118
Q

what happens as temperature increases?

A

the amount of O2 released from hemoglobin increases

119
Q

general relationship for O2 affinity with acid and temp?

A

as you increase acidity and temperature, you decrease the affinity of O2 and less of it binds to Hb

120
Q

BPG (biphosphoglycerate)

A

formed in red blood cells during glycolysis and it effects oxygen release from Hb; the greater the level of BPG the lower the affinity of O2 for Hb and more O2 is released from Hb

121
Q

3 hormones that increase BPG formation

A

testosterone, thyroxine, HGH —> all enhance O2 delivery to tissues

122
Q

how is CO2 carried in the blood?

A

in the form of dissolved CO2 (7%) bound to hemoglobin (carbaminohemoglobin) or converted into bicarbonate ions (70%)

123
Q

what maintains the ionic balance between plasma and red blood cells?

A

the conversion of CO2 to bicarbonate ions and the related chloride shift

124
Q

carbonic anhydrase

A

contained in RBCs that catalyzes the conversion of CO2 and H2O to carbonic acid H2CO3

125
Q

respiratory center

A

in the brain, consists of a medullary rhythmicity area (inspiratory and expiratory areas), pneumotaxic area, and apneustic area

126
Q

medullary rhythmicity area

A

the function of the medullary rhythmicity area is to control the basic rhythm of respiration (14-16/min)

127
Q

pneumotaxic area

A

upper pons; helps coordinate the transition between inspiration and expiration

128
Q

apneustic area

A

sends impulses to the inspiratory area that activate it and prolong inspiration, inhibiting expiration

129
Q

asthma

A

characterized by spasms of smooth muscle in the bronchial tubes that result in partial or complete closure of the passageways, inflammation, inflated alveoli, and excess mucus production. common triggers are allergy, emotional upset, aspirin, exercise, and breathing cold air or cigarette smoke

130
Q

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

A

respiratory disorder characterized by chronic and recurrent obstruction of air flow, which increases airway resistance; principal types are emphysema and chronic bronchitis

131
Q

bronchitis

A

inflammation of the bronchial tubes, the main symptom of which is a productive (raising mucus or sputum) cough

132
Q

sputum

A

mucus plus blood

133
Q

danger of a high salt diet

A

salt is a bronchoconstrictor and enhances formation of mucus.

A&P 2 (2 decks)

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