exam 2: avian Flashcards
How is the avian ventilatory system different from the mammalian?
-It is about 70% more efficient, open flow through circuit, exchanging in both exhalation and inhalation
-No diaphragm
-Air sacs: move air, responsible for ventilation, no gas exchange occurs at the air sacs
-Deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood flow opposite of one another and allow for countercurrent exchange (increases gradient for more gas exchange) and there is also cross current exchange
-Psittacine (parrot) sinuses: only one sinus (infraorbital sinus) with lots of diverticula
-no deadspace (like bronchi up in mammals) helps for efficiency
-Lungs are non-expansive
Nasal cavity
an area within the upper beak that houses the tissues (conchae) covered with olfaction nerve endings, blood vessels, and mucus secreting cells
Trachea
a tube that transports air from the larynx to the lungs and vice versa, supported by complete rings of cartilage; elongated in some birds like the wooping crane
Cervical air sac
one of a pair of thin walled membrane on either side of the neck that fills with air coming from the abdominal and thoracic air sacs
Clavicular air sac
a ballon like membrane that fills with air and extends into the hollow spaces inside the sternum and each humerus
Lung
a mass of tiny interconnecting air tubes that interwines with a bed of small blood vessels (capillaries); allows oxygen from the air to pass into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood to move into the air destined for exhalation
Anterior thoracic air sac
one of a pair of thin walled membranes that stores air on inhalation and distributes ito to the lungs on exhalation so that birds get oxygen rich air through the lungs continuouslt
What air sacs do birds have?
9 total air sacs
1) Cervical air sacs (pair)
2) Interclavicular air sac (one)
3) Anterior thoracic air sac (pair)
4) Posterior Thoracic Sac (pair)
5) abdominal air sac (pair)
Syrinx
a birds sound-producing organ, formed by modifications of the tracheal rings with membranes stretching between the rings in songbirds, extending into the bronchi and branched which allows some species to sing two notes simultaneously
Bronchi
tubes that carry air to the lungs and air sacs formed as the trachea splits into two and connect to the lungs, branching further to connect with air sacs
Psittacine infraorbital sinus
only have one sinus that has lots of diverticula
makes treatment challenging because infection can be spread evenly and makes it hard to drain easily
access areas through drilling through the skill, very difficult
attached through the the cervicothoracic air sac (most cranial, part of the upper respiratory system)
What air sac is the infraorbital sinus in psittacines attached to?
the cervicothoracic air sac of the upper respiratory system
Do birds have deadspace?
NO
How do birds rely on drawing in air without a diaphragm?
they expand their rib cage, they do not have a diaphragm.
Bird inhalation
air leaves the lungs
Bird exhalation
air enters the lungs
Do air sacs play a direct role in gas exhange?
NO, it brings air into the bellow and allows it to be stored until exhalation, allows a continuous stream of air to pass through the lungs in a one-way flow system
connect to pneumatic bones and remove excess heat as the bird breathes.
Posterior air sacs
expand on inspiration
Anterior air sacs
contract on expiration
Path of the avian breathe
1) Inhalation, travels down trachea, into left or right bronchus, into the lung, and into the posterior thoracic and abdominal air sacs
2) Exhalation, abdomen contracts and forces air out of the abdominal sacs and into the lungs, air passes through peribronchi and capillaries where they exchange CO2 and O2
3) Inhalation, the stale air is forced from the lungs to the interclavicular, cervical, and anterior thoracic air sacs
4) Exhalation, air driven out to trachea and passes out of the nostrils
Air sacculitis
inflammation of the air sacs, hard to treat because air sacs are really thin, approx one cel layer thick
What is special about passerine respiratory systems
it is divided, left and a right side
Birds (aves)
-Feathered
-Winged
-Bipedal
-Warm-blooded (endothermic, homeothermic)
-Egg-laying,
-Vertebrate
-Toothless
Bird integument
thin and fragile
three layers (epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous later)
few muscle attachments in the skin of birds
Numerous attachments to periosteum in the distal limbs (skin directly on bone)
Beak
thickened stratum corneum (calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite)
continuously worn but supplied by constant growth from the germinal epithelium, analogous to horse’s hoof
Bill tip organ
contain specialized herbst’s corpuscles for recognition of food, very prominent in the dabbling waterfowl
Uropygial gland
the largest cutaneous gland in birds, dorsal tail base, bilobed, holocrine
secretes oily substance that is spread over feathers (for waterproofing, antimicrobials, and maintaining proper feather pliability)
What are the functions of feathers?
Flight, insulation, waterproofing, and display
Flight feathers
found in the wings (reminges) and tail (rectrices)
Reminges
flight feathers covering the wings
Rectrices
flight feathers covering the tail
Contour
the feathers forming the bird’s outer body covering, including the flight feathers and the overlapping body feathers that produce the bird’s smooth aerodynamic shape.
Molting
feather loss and renewal
Continuous in psittacines, seasonal in most other orders
New growth=pin or blood feather
Controlled by thyroid, photoperiod, and other factors
Pin/Blood feather
new feather growth, vascular and nervous bundle in rachis, painful and prone to hemorrhage if broken
Avian muscoskeletal system
light weight bones
variable pneumatized (air-filled), connected to the respiratory system
fused skull with no suture lines
variable number of cervical vertebrae (some up to 35)
flattened ribs and keeled sternum for pectoral muscle attachment
Numerous fused and renamed bones
What bones are fused in birds?
1) Tarsometatarsus (fused tarsus and metatarsus)
2) Tibiotarsus (tibia and proximal tarsal bones)
3) Pygostyle= fused last few caudal vertebrae
4) Pevlic girdle: some lumbar, caudal, ileum, ischium, and pubis (Ridge is synsacrum-lumbar vert, sacrum, and pelvis)
5) Spinal column: ridged back
6) Keeled sternum: only flight birds
7) Furcula: fused clavicles (wish bone)]
8) Carpometacarpus
9) only three digits on manus
Synsacrum
the ridge on the pelvic girdle of avians from fused vertebrae (primarily lumbar)
Pectoral girdle
furcula, coracoids, scapula articulations, forms the triosseal canal
strong and prevent chest collapse during flight and allow for flight muscle attachments
Uncinate process
7 ribs that each have this projections, strength to the body wall
What muscles allow for flight?
1) Supracoracoid- upstroak
2) Pectoralis - downstroak
3) Back bones
4) Brachium muscles
5) antebrachium muscles
What bone is pneumonized in birds ?
Humerus, shows up black in radiographs (specifically on Psittacines, some species have more bones that are pneumatized)
Medullary bones
include tibia, femur, pubic bones, ribs, ulna, toes and scapula. Act as an important source of calcium when eggs are laying eggs. Hen mobilizes calcium from her bones.
Pneumatic bones
important in birds for respiration. Hollow bones which are connected to the respiratory system and make them able to breath. Include the skill, humerus, clavicle, keel, pelvic girdle, and the lumbar and sacral vertebrae
How do medullary bones tend to break?
they shatter like glass, very sharp because of spicules. blow into pieces when fractured
Triosseal foramen
the foramen formed between the articulation of the furcula, scapula, and coracoids
the tendon of the supracoracoideus muscle passes through this fossa for attachment to the dorsal part of the humerus, responsible for the upstroke of the wing
Coracoid bone
functions to prevent the chest from collapsing when the bird flaps its wings.
common fracture when birds hit the window
fractures are hard to diagnose because they are buried in the pectoral muscles
What does it mean when birds are uricotelic
uric acid is the end product of their nitrogen metabolism
Do birds have a urinary bladder
NO
avian renal anatomy
paired kidneys recessed in the renal fossa of synsacrum
trilobed- anterior, middle, posterior,
external iliac separates anterior and middle
ischiadic artery separates middle and posterior
Middle lobe indistinct in passerines
-no distinct renal pelvis
-renal lobule is pear shaped, perilobular collecting tubules empty into medullary collecting ducts and collecting ducts coalesce to form the ureters of the bird
What is special about the spinal nerves of lumbosacral plexus in birds
They course through the renal parenchyma
-if the kidney gets enlarged, can lead to lameness signs
Avian nitrogen metabolism
uric acid is the major end product of nitrogen metabolism in birds
*lack carbamyl phosphate synthesae so cant synthesize urea
-synthesized in the liver
90% actively secreted via the proximal tubules and 10% is filtered via the glomeruli
*Not dependent on GFR for the clearance of nitrogenous waste
Avian sex determination
Birds have Z and W sex chromosomes
Males are Homgametic: ZZ
Females are heterogametic: ZW
*Females are the determiners of sex
Psittacines
parrots
strong, curved beak, upright stance with strong legs
What does it mean that psittacines are zygodactyl?
4 digits, two in the front and two in the back. digit one is short and in back left
How do you determine the sex of a psittacine?
DNA sexing is the preferred choice, where feather,blood is used .
you can also look at the colors over the beak and coat but less reliable
Eclectus
a psittacine where males are green and females are red
Cockatiels
a psittacine where males have bright cheek patches and females have spotted wings/tails
Budgerigars
a psittacine where males have blue cere and females have a grey pink brown cere
Ideal lighting for psittacines
12/12 hours light and dark. the dark needs to be quiet and dark
Psitaccine enclosure precautions
Keep their cage high and at eye level,
away from drafts and flammable objects, near windows for light and entertainments (avoid kitchen, basement, front door and rooms with fireplace)
ensure it is strong and covered in a non-toxic lining (powder coated, stailness steel)
size should be 1.5 to 2.5 times their wingspan and tall is good , appropriate bar spacing for them (enough to keep the bird in, and not enough to entrap toes, wings, head and beak
Substrate that is easy to clean (Newspaper, paper towels), avoid corn cob, wood chips (risk for fungus and ingestion)
Accessories: perches (no sandpaper, bowls, nests, harnesses, beware string
What should you avoid with a psittacine enclosure
teflon, lead, and zinc
Psittacine diet
70% pellets
20% veggies
10% fruits
Nuts/seeds 5%
*Budgies and cockatiels- more seeds are likely okay,
lories and lorikeets are nectarivores
*seeds can lead to obesity, fatty live disease and vitamin/mineral deficiencies (Low in calcium and vitamins)
What precautions should you take when handling psitaccines?
they might perceives touching of certain areas as sexual which can lead to behavioral problems such as regurgitation and attacking others. only touch head
What diseases are chicks commonly vaccinated against in-ovo?
Mareck’s, Newcastle disease and infectious bursal disease
Chicken coop and run
Protected coop with roosts (perches) and nest boxes
shelter from elements
food and water sources
outdoor run and pasture space (protected/fenced ideal, free range risks of predation and exposire
Duck housing
ducks coops require floor level hiding spots and nests boxes, do not perch high
require pool, pond, or other water sources for bathing
More prone to foot disease
Ducks are more readily predated, poor fliers, slow moving
Bedding and substrate for chickens
soft or with give, variety is essential
dirt, sand, or a sand+dirt mix
shavings
hay/straw must be kept dry
pea gravel, grass or pasture
multilayered
How do you predator and vermin proof a chicken coop
bury fencing, solid barrier at the base of the enclosure (wood, metal sliding), solid walls in roosting and nesting areas, raised food dispensers, food dispensers with small openings to minimize scatter
Pododermatitis
Bumblefoot, poor footing
caused by wet/moist, hard/packed dirt, abrasive, lack of variety
Contributing factors are obsesity, sedentary, overcrowding and illness
Crop Stasis and crop impaction
sour crop
ingestion of foreigh material (Hay, straw, insect exoskeletons, fresh grass wads)
Secondary to other systemic disease (Reproductive disease causing decreased GI motility)
Parasitic disease (Bacterial overgrowth and coccidia)
Chicken reproductive diseases
Dystocia- egg binding
Abnormal egg production (commonly due to nutritional or infectious disease causes)
Reproductive neoplasia (age related vs viral induced)
Broody chickens: hens that reguse to leave the nestbox until they raise chicks, will not eat and drink
Chick diseases
1) Orthopedic diseases: slipped tendons, bony malformation, scoliosis/kyphosis
2) Infectious disease (E coli, nectrotic enteritis, omphaltitis, salmonella pullorum)
Falcons - American kestrel
the smallest and most common NA falcon
can see UV light to help track rodent urine trails (Rodent eater)
sexuallly dimorphic- females are bigger than males
Falcons- peregrine falcon
likes to eat other birds, but will consume a variety of prey items
fastest animal on earth , urban birds
Eagles- golden eagle
the largest eagle, prefers to eat mammals, feather down to the feet can be golden and brown
beak color that is light and dark
often mistaken as a bald eagle
Eagles- bald eagle
second largest bird of prey in NA
not just fish eaters, eat from landfills and carion, matched pairs add to their nest each breeding year, make large nests
hoosted when adults
Accipiters- sharp skinned hawk
the smallest NA accipiter, eats birds, very urban
similar to the coopers hawk but is smaller
mroe secretive birds that live deep in wood areas
Accipiters- coopers hawk
larger than the sharp skinned hawk, juvenile males often difficult to distinguish from large female SSHa
long tail to help maneuver
betware of foot problems in captivity (Bumble foot)
Buteos- red shouldered hawk
very vocal and notoriously stubborn, diet consists of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
scream a lot in captivity
Buteos- red tailed hawk
typical red tail occurs dueing the birds second year, diet mostly of mammals but also medium sized birds and reptiles, raspy cry that is used in movies to portray any bird of prey
Barn owls
declining numbers due to habitat loss, excellent rodent control, sexual dimoprhic, eerie vocalization/shrieking
Barred owl
diet consist of amphibians, reptiles birds, and mammals
impressive vocal repetoire, very pretty
Great-horned owl
regularly eats skunks or anything it can catch with its big talons
males have deeper voices than females, despite females being larger
Turkey vultures
eat carrion
red head when adult, grey when juvenille
urinate on their hind limbs (cooling purposes, acidic so may serve to kill bacteria remaining from the bird’s memal
osprey
a fish eating specialist (99% of their diet) Barbed pads on the feet and a reversible fourth digit for grabbing fish, found near large bodies of water
Birds of prey housing
hospital cages and dog crates okay but make sure to screen with towels covering the front to limit stimulation, allow natural light for feeding
not common to have water while indoors
Perches that are appropiate material (astroturf) to reduce pododermatitis
Flight conditioning
release requires endurance, maneuvering skills and ability to gain altitude
excercise at optimal level for 7 days prior to release
After attaining 4 days of optimal exercise level, start on mouse school
How might feeding amounts change depending
1) Body condition score
2) severity of injury
3) seasonal variations
4) sex differences
Creancing
open flying without a flight pen, use to train the bird to get enough endurance and strength
Prey school
done so they can prove they can catch prey before release, for raptors that might have been injured (test after hospitalization) or orphaned (have never seen live food before)
to pass: needs to kill half or more mice offered over consecutive nights : adults 3-5 nights, juveniles 6-8 nights
Wildlife release criteria
1) initial illness or injury resolved with no risk of recurrence (all secondary problems have been resolved)
2) It is not likely to spread pathogens or contribute to disease processes in any way
3) can effectively avoid predators
4) able to find food by foraging or hunting in the wild
5) Can function reasonably within the population and can reproduce (not imprinted on humans, etc)
Raptor specific release criteria
1) migration periods
2) owls need to be silent when they fly
3) body condition
4) flight conditionint
5) hunting capabilities
6) visual capacity
Passerines
“song bird/house sparrows” passer domesticus
largest avian order, representing more than half of all species
extremely high basal metabolic rate (108F), small crop, muscular ventriculus for seed digestion, rudimentary ceca
What toe arrangement do Passerines have?
Anisodactyl (digit 1: backward, digits 2-4 are forward)
What species have muscular ventriculus for seed digestion?
Passerines
What is important about the Passerine’s left and right nasal passages not communicating?
you need to flush each nares separately in clinics
How many air sacs do Passerines have?
7- fused cranial thoracic and clavicular
What avian order has right and right ends of the syrinx and are able to produce two sounds simultaneously
Passerines
Commercial available seed diets are multideficient in:
-Vitamins A,D,E,K, methionine
Poor Ca:P ratio
Poor quality protein
and high in fat
B vitamin (birds dont eat the hulls)
Egg food
a supplement to the seed diet
very important in breeders
moistened food offered daily with seed
contain fat soluble vitamins and 16-18% protein
Passerine caging
should encoruage flight, multiple, variable sized and textured perches
Nest boxes, (will reproduce if present)
water bath offered 3-5 times per week
Altering the photoperiod of passerines does what beyond reproductive manipulation
shortens their lifespan
Columbiformes
Pigeons and doves
primarily granivorous
anisodactyl
agile in flight
Columbiforme anatomy
-Short bills and legs
-Fleshly cere
-Lack gall bladder
-Produce crop milk to feed hatching for 1st milk
(secretions from and sloughed cellular lining of crop, extremely high in protein and fat with antioxidants and IgA, controlled by prolactin)
Open flock management
done in pigeon racing husbandry
individual bird is less important than the flock, individual may be monetarily valuable, goal of management is to create and overal healthy flock, maximizes performance and profit
Pigeon racing
sport that necessitates contact between birds from many different lofts, thousands of birds intermingles at release site every week
may intermingle with wild birds, impossible to prevent infectious disease
Quality of pigeons
determined by genetics of parents, selection often based upon performance, neglecting other considerations including disease resistance
Wing feathers (remiges)
specialized for flight and are characterized by uniform windproof surfaces, or vanes, on either side.
“feathers are asymmetric with a shorter, less flexible leading edge that prevents midair twisting)
Tail feathers / rectrices
arranged in a fan shape that support precision steering in flight. typically have 6 pairs of feathers on the tail
Contour feathers / coverts
what covers the birds body and streamlining its shape, arranged in overlapping pattern like shingles, waterproof tips are exposed to elements and fluffy bases are tucked close to the body
create a smoothing region where flight feathers attach to the bone
cover the whole body
Semiplune feathers
mostly hidden beanath other feathers on the body, have a developed central rachis but not hooks on the barbules, creating a fluffy insulating structure
Down feathers
similar to semiplimes with an even looser branching struccture but little or no central rachis
trap heat
not all have this, same function as semiplune
Filoplume
short simple feathers with a few barbs,
function like mammal whiskers to sense the position of contour feathears
Bristle
the simplest feathers, with a stiff rachis that usualyl lacks barb, most commonly found on the head, protect bird’s eyes and face
Do only birds have feathers?
Yes
Blood feather
newly growing feather that can break
stop the bleeding, pinch off end, pull out the blood feather
a bird wont bleed to death from it but they flap wings and blood goes everywhere
grown feathers have their blood supply and innervation involuted
flight feathers attached to periosteum, very painful when you are pulling it out, block with lidocaine
Primary flight feather
attached to bone, distal to the carpus (carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges)- typically 9
Secondary flight feather
attached to bone, the radius and ulna (primarily the ulna) 1-13
Tertiary flight feathers
attached to bone, the humerus 1-8 (roughly)
