Exam 2 Flashcards
Echoic memory
The brief memory of something a person just heard.
The three processes of memory:
Storage, Encoding, Retrieval
Iconic memory
Visual sensory memory lasting only a fraction of a second.
Short-term memory (STM)
The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used
Long-term memory (LTM)
The system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.
Levels-of-processing model
Model of memory that assumes information that is more “deeply processed,” or processed according to it’s meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.
Parallel distributed processing model (PDP)
A model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.
Information processing model
The model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages. The process of Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval are part of this model.
Working memory
An active system that processes the information in short term memory.
Serial position effect
Information at the beginning and end of a list, such as a song or a poem tends to be remembered more easily and accurately.
Sleep waves:
• Beta • Theta • Alpha • Delta
Beta
The brainwaves a person has when they are wide awake and mentally active.
Theta
Brainwaves indicating the early stages of sleep.
Alpha
Brainwaves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep.
Delta
Long, slow waves that indicated the deepest stage of sleep.
REM rebound
An increased amount of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights.
REM behavior disorder
A rare disorder in which the mechanism that blocks the movement of the voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash around an even get up and act out nightmares.
REM paralysis
The inability of the voluntary muscles to move during REM sleep.
Problem Solving
Process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
Heuristics
An educated guess based on prior experience that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. AKA a “rule of thumb.”
Prototypes
An example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept.
Availability heuristic
Estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples.
Means-end analysis
Heuristic in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference.
Mental sets
The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
Confirmation bias
The tendency for people to search for evidence that does not fit those beliefs.
Divergent Thinking
The type of thinking in which person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point.
Convergent Thinking
Type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic.
Syntax
The system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences.
Phonemes
The basic units of sound in language.
Morphemes
The smallest units of meaning within a language.
Longitudinal design
Research design in which one participant or a group of participants is studied over a long period of time.
Cross-sectional design
Research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time.
Cross-sequential design
Research study design in which participants are first studied by means of cross-sectional design but are followed and assessed for a period of no more than 6 years.
Nature
The influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.
Nurture
The influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
Critical period
Times during which certain environmental influences can have and impact on the development of the infant.
Germinal period
The first two weeks after germination, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant into the lining.
Embryonic period
The period from two weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism begin to develop.
Fetal period
The time from about 8 weeks after the conception until the birth of the child.
Scaffolding
Process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.
Temperament styles
The behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth, such as easy, difficult, and slow to warm up.
Attachment
The emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver. Usually occurs within the first 6 months and shows up in a number of ways in the 2nd 6 months.
Secure Attachment Style
Infants who are willing to get down off mom’s lap and explore happily. They occasionally return to mom as if they’re touching base. They become uncomfortable and upset when mom leaves the room and a stranger enters but are easily consoled when mom reenters.
Avoidant Attachment Style
They are somewhat willing to explore but do not touch base with mom. They react very little to mom leaving the room and a stranger entering. They do not look at the stranger or the mother.
Ambivalent Attachment Style
Means to ‘have mixed feelings’ about something. These babies were clingy and unwilling to explore. Upset about the stranger regardless of the mother’s presence. They became very upset when mom left the room and where hard to console.
Disorganized-disoriented Attachment Style
Babies who are unable to decide how they should react to the mother’s return. They would approach her but with eyes turned away as if afraid to make eye contact. They seemed generally fearful and showed a dazed and depressed look on their faces.
Telegraphic speech
Around a 1.5 yrs of age a child will begin to use short phases where only the meaningful words are said. “Doggy go bye-bye.”
Authoritarian Parenting Style
Style of parenting in which the parent is ridged and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child.
Permissive Neglectful Parenting
Permissive parenting in which the parents are uninvolved with a child or child’s behavior.
Permissive Indulgent Parenting
Permissive parenting in which the parents are so involved that children are allowed to behave without set limits.
Authoritative Parenting Style
Style of parenting in which parents combine warmth and affection with firm limits on a child’s behavior.
Permissive Parenting
Style of parenting in which the parent makes few, if any demands on the child’s behavior.
Erikson’s Theory
Babies shouldn’t be left to ‘cry it out’ because they need to develop attachment. Felt that social interactions where more important in development than sexual development. Believed that development occurred in 8 stages: Infant (Birth to 1 yr.), Toddler (1-3 yrs), Preschool Age (3-5 yrs), Elementary School Age (5-12 yrs), Adolescence (13- early 20s), Early Adulthood (20s and 30s), Middle Adulthood (40s and 50s), Late Adulthood (60s & up)
Kohlberg’s levels of morality
Kohlberg told several dilemma stories and asked many such questions to discover how people reasoned about moral issues. He identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning each with two sub stages. People can only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.
Motivation
The process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.
Extrinsic motivation
Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person.
Intrinsic motivation
Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.
Instincts
The biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals.
Primary Drive
The drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst.
Secondary Drive
The drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval.
Homeostasis
The tendency of the body to maintain a steady state.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
