Exam 2 Flashcards

Question

ENS is _______ in its resting state

Answer 1

inhibitory! chemical denervation increases small bowel motor activity

Answer 2

begins with salivary alpha amylase (which is inactivated by stomach gastric acid) then pancreatic amylase digests to alpha limit dextrins and maltooligosaccharides, eventually to glucose which enters cell thru SGLT1

Answer 3

layer of hypothetical water that coats mucosa of villi (from capillary effect) - **barrier to absorption** of all materials (espec. fats) ex. there is less absorption in non-motile bowel

Answer 4

bile pigment pathology; unconjugated bilirubin causes irreversible CNS damage as BBB still permeable; combines with neural cell nuclei / disrupts function

Answer 5

above: superior rectal → preaortic nodes OR middle rectal nodes, visceral innervation (not painful) below: superficial inguinal, somatic innervation (v painful)

Answer 6

CYBRD1 (Fe3+ →2+ thru DMT-1) DMT-1 heme oxygenase (Fe3+→2+ thru HT) ferroportin - gets Fe out of cell

Answer 7

secrete pancreatic polypeptide in response to protein, fasting, exercise, and acute hypoglycemia

Answer 8

ano rectal angle due to contraction of puborectalis mucle - causes valvular like resistance in colon, prevents defecation een with internal anal sphincter inhibition has to move from (90-110 degrees to 130-140) - gets more **obtuse** and pelvic floor lowers

Answer 9

filling stomach increases distal motor activity in the colon (infants diapers have to be changed soon after feeding)

Answer 10

describes exocrine function of liver (bile secretion) - portal triad at center, central veins points of triangles

Answer 11

holds up to 4500 Fe atoms - has ferroxidase converts Fe3+ to Fe2+ and then internalized; in most teissues (liver, spleen, BM) degraded by lysosomal proteases to mobilize iron. marker of inflammation

Answer 12

they secrete water and Nacl and Kcl rather than absorb them

Answer 13

glycoprotein hormone sec. by liver and kidneys - is a cytokine that stimulates erythrocyte precursors in BM to mature into erythrocytes liver synthesis in fetal period (up to 32 weeks gestation), kidney synthesis after EPO binds to EpoR which activates JAK2

Answer 14

(B2) FMN and FAD * reactions: redox reactions as cofactors (dehydrogenase, amino oxidase, decarboxylation pyruvate) * deficiency: inflammation (dermitis, stomatitis, cheliosis), photophobia * sensitive to light, can be depleted from sun exposure (phototherapy bilirubin) * sources: plants and yeast, enriched breads, liver/kidney

Answer 15

come as ventral outgrowths of foregut. liver comes from development of hepatic cords, liver grows cranially and GB grows caudally. are both endoderm derivatives

Answer 16

bursts of intense motor activity to "clean out" stomach post emptying 4 phases: I: quiesence II: building waves of contraction III: crescendo of activitve IV: return to normal quiesence

Answer 17

kayser-fleischer corneal rings with Cu deposits - mutation in ATP7B so Cu can't get into ceruloplasmic (Fe problems with oxidation coming out of liver) and excrete Cu in bile give cu chelator (penicillamine and trientine) factitious smile, pseudo-laughter/open mouth dull look, staring expression. hand and nuchal dystonia

Answer 18

1. cephalic - neurally stimulated by sight/smell/thought 2. oral - (largest volume) mechanical stimulation of oral cavity from food/gum 3. esophageal (gastric): distension of esophagus/stomach, cleans out dentition

Answer 19

jejunum! then duodenum, then ileum and colon act as reserve

Answer 20

AI: approximates safe levels EAR: 50% of population safe levels RDA: safe levels for 97-98% of population UL: highest upper limit with no adverse effects

Answer 21

rotates clockwise 90° during week 4-6, posterior side enlarges (LARP)

Answer 22

MD: vitilline duct stays attached to ileum (2% of population, within 2 feet of ileocecal junction, 2 inches, 2% symptomatic, detected by age 2) VC: ileal tissue suspended by vitelline ligaments VF: remains patent; feces could leak out of umbilicus

Answer 23

stimuli from viscera, uvula, and pericardia (inc bowel obstruction) stimulates emesis

Answer 24

bile canaliculi (hepatocytes) lined by cholangiocytes

Answer 25

voluntary! external anal sphincter under voluntary control via skeletal muscle / pudendal nerve

Answer 26

glucose gets into β cell by GLUT2 results in K channel closure (due to ATP being formed), membrane depolarizes voltage gated Ca channels open, insulin gets released

Answer 27

hepatic artery simple squamous epithelium, know its a BV

Answer 28

pro-inflammatory cytokine, pos. correlated with BMI. increases lipolysis and release of FFA, down regulates GLUT4. inhibits adiponectin

Answer 29

involved in transport of thyroxine (T4) to target tissues, carries RBP and retinol bc too small for GFR

Answer 30

enter: DMT1 or Ctr1 exits: ATP7A (ATPase) - everywhere in body except liver circulates bound to albumin (excess goes into bile by ATP7B and excreted) - liver specific

Answer 31

4 Ca bind to a calmodulin (weak bond) CAM activates MLCK myosin head gets phosphorylated which forms cross bridge with actin when ADP and Pi come off, swivels from 90 to 45 degrees = power stroke

Answer 32

SGLT1-Na co-transport, influenced by insulin

Answer 33

brush border peptidase for oligopeptides; req. H co-transport, then get hydrolyzed to AA in the cell Na H exchanger to maintain pH

Answer 34

the inhibition of the LES and resultant lowering of tension during swallowing. requires functional myenteric plexus

Answer 35

1. oral phase (voluntary) 1. CN V, VII, IX, X, XII 2. pharyngeal phase (involuntary) 1. CN IX, X 3. esophageal phase (involuntary) 1. CN X dysphagia can occur in any of the stages

Answer 36

1. pressure gradient between antrum and duodenum 2. if food is in solid/liquid form 3. chemicals that are affecting gastric emptying 1. 5HT3 and M3 inc. gastric emptying 2. CCK and 5HT1 slow gastric emptying

Answer 37

(B9) tetrahydrofolate FH4 * reaction: carrier for single C metabolism (homocysteine →methionine), synth of nucleic acids \*necessaery for fetal dev. * deficiency: (slow/rare) defective cell proliferation. during pregnancy ⇒ spina bifida * symptoms: megaloblastic anemia * sources: dark leafy greens * excess: can mask megaloblastic anemia bc vitamin B12 deficiency = demyelination/irriversible damage * methotrexate - cancer tx, blocks DHFR preventing FH4 synthesis

Answer 38

* secretin: inc. HCO3 secretion in pancreas and pancreatic enyzme secretion * motilin: gastric and intestinal motiltity * substance P: nt, inc. pancreatic flow and HCO3 and amylase secretion

Answer 39

in liver kuffer cell (hepatocyte macrophage)

Answer 40

mutation of genes regulating hepcidin (less hepcidin being made) so high ferroportin, low levels of Fe stores (its all in the body) HFE (hemochromatosis assoc gene product) binds to transferrin recpetor TfR2 (liver) so it can't adequately regulate hepcidin expression types 1-3 hepcidin problems, type 4 ferroportin problem. type 2 is worst

Answer 41

secretin (an enterogastrone) from S cells

Answer 42

inappropriate decreases from normal frequency of defecation - starvation, dehydration, surgery, antihypertensive drugs

Answer 43

α linoleic (LA) - omega 6 → arachidonic acid, precursos to bioactive lipids in inflammation (PGs, leukotrienes) α linolenic (ALA) - omega 3, in oils/flax. converted to EPA then DHA. fatty fish high content

Answer 44

(from liver) reg. number of whole platelets in blood (300k). also made in BM, kidney, striated muscle liver predominants post 32 weeks gestation rate of TBO production changed by **IL-6** presence once TBO bound to platelets, gets catabolized

Answer 45

forms vasodilator bradykinin to inc. bf to salivary glands

Answer 46

made 1° by liver IGF-2 main during gestation - maternal IGF-2 doesn't cross placental barrier (from imprinted gene). stimulates IGF-1 in paracrine manner IGF-1 important post gestation most (98%) IGF-1 is bound (to IGF-BP-3) IGFR is RTK → AKT signaling pathway

Answer 47

in islet of langerhans pancreatic polypeptide; inhibits enzyme and bicarb release

Answer 48

protein 10-35% (0.8 g/kg/day) fat 20-35% carbohydrates 45-65%

Answer 49

1. internal nares sealed off 2. epiglottis covers trachea 3. oral cavity closes as base of tongue touches soft palate 4. UES opens 5. eustachian tubes open then close as bolus passes

Answer 50

congenital aganglionic megacolon - motor disorder of gut from failure of NC migration

Answer 51

secreted by stomach and hypothalamus, increased during fasting, decreased by presence of food in stomach. stimulates NPY/AgRP neurons role in body weight regulation GHS-R acylated - necessary to cross BBB

Answer 52

omphalocele: intestine protrudes into covered umbilical cord gastroschisis: structures not in peritoneal layer

Answer 53

dietary Fe bound to iron solubulized by gastric acid, occurs in duodenum (damaged duodenum = microcytic anemia) Fe3+ in plasma absorbed by enterocytes and converted to Fe2+

Answer 54

primary intestinal loop rotates around SMA (CCW 270 total) 2 phases: 1. gut herneates into umbilical cord at week6 (90 CCW) 2. returns to abdominal cavity week10 (180 CCW)

Answer 55

gall bladder looks like coral reef

Answer 56

X-linked neurodegenerative disease due to ATP7A mutation (everywhere except adult liver) so Cu can't get released into blood most die by 3y. failure to thrive, cerebral degeneration, joint hypermobility, hypopigmentation, twisted hair (pili torti)

Answer 57

dietary heme gets converted Fe3+→2+ by **heme oxygenase**, goes thru HT transporter bilirubin is byproduct nonheme iron solubilized by **ferric reductase** to Fe2+ which gets absorbed by DMT1 (Ca competitively inhibits)

Answer 58

1. segmentation (mixing and packing contractions) - apperance of haustra 2. mass peristalsis - simultaneous contraction of large areas of distal colon, squeezes feces into distal colon and rectum

Answer 59

**primary**: made in liver from cholesterol → cholic & deoxycholic acids **secondary**: 1° metabolized by bacteria → deoxycholic & lithocholic acids **bile salts**: 1° and 2° bile acids get conjugated with glycine and taurine - are more water soluble

Answer 60

Na dependent neutral AA transporter (to transport specific AAs, others for specific acidic/basic AAs)

Answer 61

SCFA diffuse right into hepatic portal circulation LCFA are re-esterified bto TGs, coated with beta lipoprotein and form chylomicrons which diffuse into lacteals to general circulation

Answer 62

1.5-2.5 mmol/hr 15-25 mmol/hr ratio normally 1:5 (0.2)

Answer 63

binds with B12 (cyanocobalamine) after B12 freed by pepsin is partially digested by pancreatic enzymes, allowing intrinsic factor to bind B12

Answer 64

Gαq → inc. Ca, stimulates the H K pump stimulates M3 receptors on parietal cells and histamine releasing EC cells

Answer 65

basolateral parietal cell HCO3 is exchanged for Cl

Answer 66

2nd level of receptors that supplement emetic center stim. by meningitis, spoled foods, chemo, toxins, hypoxia, acidosis, radiation therapy, pregnancy these stimulate 5HT3 receptors

Answer 67

secreted by white sc cells - much higher circulating levels than leptin! inversely correlated with BMI (skinny people have more adiponectin) signals AMPK, increases glucose uptake and FA oxidation in muscle, dec. liver gluconeogenesis and dec. BGL (inhibits energy consuming, anabolic pathways), promotes catabolism

Answer 68

phasic - rhythmic contractions (SI and LI), req. AP to initiate Ca influx (ICCs) - BER tonic - baseline tension maintined at sphincters; doesn't require APs for Ca influx or ICCs

Answer 69

in liver hemocydrin - liver takes care of worn out RBCs. complexes of ferritin

Answer 70

converts trypsinogen to trypsin secreted by **intestinal crypts** in active form, bound to mucosal BB but is freed from presence of bile salts and activated from trypsinogen presence \*the important enzyme that initiates activation of **pancreatic enzymes**

Answer 71

from 2 endodermal buds, ventral bud moves dorsally around the duodenum and becomes uncinate process (dorsal bud becomes neck, body, tail) ventral bud leads to main pancreatic duct

Answer 72

tone: in SkM due to discharge of α motor neurons tonus: latch bridge formation/sustained muscular tension, a high efficiency contraction as no ATP needed (SUVSM)

Answer 73

connect gut stube to disappearing yolk sac (week 4)

Answer 74

1. cephalic 2. gastric 3. intestinal

Answer 75

excess chloride secretion → secretory diarrhea in short bowel syndrome, colitis, defective bile transporters, IBS

Answer 76

common bile duct low columnar epithelium

Answer 77

duodenal ulcers: 6:20 (0.3) ZE syndrome: 40/65 (0.62) + gastric ulcer: 0.75/10 (0.075) pernicious anemia/severe gastric mucosal atrophy: 0

Answer 78

(B7) * reaction: carboxylation reactions - CO2 binding factor, post translational modification of proteins * deficiency: rare, caused by raw egg whites (avidin) * symptoms: hair loss, rash, neurological * sources: egg yolks/liver, microbiota synthesize

Answer 79

serotonin (5HT); stim. by stretch receptors/efferent vagal stimulation in front of bolus, inhibits circular muscle and stimulates longitudinal muscle contraction

Answer 80

somatostatin - inhibits gastric acid secretion (inh. parietal cells and gastrin secreting cells and EC cells) \*during digestion, D cells inhibited by vagal stimulation from Ach or GRP stimulated by pH \<2

Answer 81

zone 1 higher O2 and toxin content

Answer 82

begins starch digestion

Answer 83

secreted by intestinal L cells and CNS solitary tract - distal ileum and colon. secretion biphasic (first from neuro and gut hormones, then from digested nutrients) fx: increases insulin secretion to decrease post prandial glucose spikes, gets rapidly degraded. also increases brain satiety, dec. gastric motility/secretion, inc. tissue glucose uptake

Answer 84

1. synthesized to ferritin (storage) 2. transported into plasma by FP transporter (basolateral) 1. **hepaestin** is bound to FP transporter and makes Fe3+ so it can be pumped out bound to **transferrin**

Answer 85

stores vitamin A and lipid (vit A req. for sperm development, CV outflow - orientation of cardaic NC cells during septation - without, can lead to congenital heart defects/persistent truncus arteriosus) can differentiate into myofibroblasts in disease state → liver fibrosis, active in cancer - breaks down ECM to help cells metastasize

Answer 86

**dependent**: resecretion of recycled bile salts and de novo bile acids which osmotically draw water and electrolytes into bile canaliculus **independent**: secretion of water, bicarb, electrylytes, stim. by secretin to neutralize acid

Answer 87

1. NPY/AgRP - appetite stimulating (orexogenic) 2. POMC/CART release αMSH - appetite suppressing (anorexogenic) NPY is MC3/4 antagonist, POMC is MC3/4 agonist

Answer 88

dopamine stimulates hunger

Answer 89

endocrine pancreas (islets) - fenestrated exocrine pancreas (acini/ducts) - non fenestrated

Answer 90

differentiation of epithelium (due to retinoic acid)

Answer 91

secreted from L cells in distal intestine rapidly after eating carbs and fat - is an incretin homrone, increases insulin secretion/inhibits glucagon decreases food intake/appetite

Answer 92

mostly paracellular (espec when high Ca content), some transcellular occurs mainly in duodenum (some j/i) **transcellular:** req. calcitriol - low serum Ca stimulates PTH which will convert to active form (1 alpha hydroxylase), then calcitriol inserts TRPV6 channels into apical membrane, makes calbindin-D in absorptive cells, Ca H ATPase pump, Na Ca exchanger

Answer 93

from mid SI thru to stomach via pyloric sphincter during emesis; accounts for bitter bile like taste (can extend down to proximal colon in infants)

Answer 94

converts Fe2+ →Fe3+ in enterocytes = hephaestin in hepactocytes/macrophases = ceruloplasmin

Answer 95

lipids [and protein] stimulate CCK release from I cells, stimulates CCKA receptors to * contract GB * relax sphincter of oddi * pancreatic enzyme secretion * inh. gastric acid secretion

Answer 96

1. **secretory**: enterotoxins from viruses/bacteria/parasites - damaged mucosa, can't absorb fluids and electrolytes 2. **osmotic**: laxative abuse, malabsorption of osmotically active agents 3. **inflammatory** 4. **abnormal motility**

Answer 97

B1 (thiamine pyrophosphate TPP) * reactions: oxidative decarboxylation reactions (pyruvate dehydrogease, αKG dehydrogenase, transketolase * defiency - in areas sensitive to energy deprivation (CNS, heart, muscle) * disease: **beriberi** (dry = neuropathy, wet = CFH) * **wernicke-korsakoff syndrome**: psychosis/ataxis from chronic alcoholism/morning sickness * source: whole grain cereals, legumes, nuts, enriched bread

Answer 98

stimulation of 2 secretory pathways: Gastrin-Ach pathway via Gαq GTP binding protein histamine pathway via Gαs

Answer 99

* reaction: antioxidant, inserts in PM to protect from ROS, traps free radicals * deficiency: severe ataxia, neuropathy/myopathy/retinopathy, impaired immunity, hemolytic anemia in infants * sources: nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, green veggies * toxicity: hemorrhaging/impaired blood clotting

Answer 100

* counters ROS * recycles α tocopherol (Vit E) and BH4 which helps bring NO * inhibits NFKβ (pro-inflammatory) * cofactor for monooxygenase rxns (catecholamines and vasopressin pdtn) * increases catecholamine sensitivity

Answer 101

NaCl and water resporption (97.8% recovery) - jejunum is major site for water, electrolyte, nutrient

Answer 102

released 90% from stomach and from pancreatic epsilon cells in response to low nutrients assoc. with GH stimulates hunger centers (NPY and AgRP) to generate appetite

Answer 103

physically - intermediate junctions electrically - gap junctions

Answer 104

from chief and mucous neck cells of fundus hydrolyzes 15-20% of dietary lipid

Answer 105

(emesis) vestibular system by inappropriate mtion/infections

Answer 106

saliva; for B12 absorption

Answer 107

1. ENS 2. endocrine 3. paracrine 4. SUVSM

Answer 108

in ileum, colon and crypt cells electroneutral

Answer 109

pancreatic islet pale with lots of BV

Answer 110

ileum; Na coupled transporter into enterocyte

Answer 111

PaCO2 and adenosine

Answer 112

weight/(height)^2 kg/(m)^2 \<18.5 = underweight 18.5-24.9 = desired weight 25-29.9 = overweight \>30 = obese

Answer 113

cystic fibrosis chloride channel on apical side of pancreatic duct cell allows lumen to be flushed - maintains electro and osmoneutrality. without ⇒ pancreatitis

Answer 114

generated in SkM portion of esophagus (upper 1/3); then contraction coordinated in the swallowing center, nucleus ambigious and non-vagal nuclei **myenteric plexus** intitiates spread down lower 2/3 upon efferent output from X dorsal motor nucleus **peristalsis**: wave of relaxation then wave of contraction

Answer 115

COX-1, stimulates PGE3 → mucus secretion

Answer 116

secretes VIP: inhibits release of gastrin/gastric HCl stimulates secretion of water/electrolytes by small and large intestine - relax GI sphincters, slows intestinal transit time

Answer 117

released by delta cells in response to glucagon and elevated BGL, inhibited by insulin \*acts paracrine to inhibit insulin and glucagon

Answer 118

secretin (HCO3 release)

Answer 119

metabolic adaptation to weight changes - changes in energy expenditure 10% reduction ing body weight accompanied by 20-25% decline in energy expenditure

Answer 120

(B12) * reactions: methyl transfer rxns (homoxysteine →met, MM-CoA →SU-CoA) * deficiency: pernicious anemia (lack of intrinsic factor) from autoimmune/strict vegans * symptoms: **megaloblastic anemia** (from FH4 trapping), neuro disorders (demyelination) * elevated MM-CoA specific for B12 def

Answer 121

* **duodenum**: nutrients, water, nacl, folate, Fe, Ca * **jejunum:** water, nacl, K, HCO3, nutrients (main) * **ileum**: water, nacl, nutrients (reserve), bile, B12 * **colon:** water, nacl, nutrients (reserve)

Answer 122

kupffer cells (liver macrophages) come from monocytes from BM, differentiate in target tissues. are APCs with MHC II, secrete cytokines and chemokines

Answer 123

N balance = intake - excretion intake = .16 x itake positive N balance in pregnancy, low in sepsis

Answer 124

Ct and viscera tissue, serous membranes

Answer 125

**function:** prevent material in stomach from refluxing back into esophagus **inn:** efferent vagal inn is inhibitory

Answer 126

**primary saliva:** secretion from acinar portions (fluid, ions, enzymes, mucous + blood borne hormones) - isotonic **secondary saliva**: interaction with ductal cells (striated duct) - hypotonic (more ions reabsorbed than water)

Answer 127

CCK (an enterogastrone) from I cells

Answer 128

secreted by EC cells and acts paracrine EC cells stim. by Ach, gastrin, or distension histamine stim. h2 receptors on parietal cells which activates Gαs (cAMP → PKA → proton pump)

Answer 129

lack of receptive relaxation at the LES; if ENS or vagus doesn't work. causes regurguitation/mega esophagus

Answer 130

higher in lean individuals, localized to supraclavicular and anterior cervical areas. allows for non-shivering thermogenesis based on **UCP-1** and **DIO2** UCP-1 has lots of mitochondria for energy storage mechanism: βAR → cAMP → DIO2 →T3→UCP-1 →leakage of protons, dissipation of energy as heat

Answer 131

iniitates lipid digestio of 10% of ingested fat (important when intenstinal digestion abnormal)

Answer 132

inflammation of gastric mucosa - sometimes by H. pylori, sometimes by NSAIDs

Answer 133

required for voiding; stimulus increased (\>18 mmHg) from stretching colonic and rectal receptors

Answer 134

upper duodenum

Answer 135

high Fe plasma, high hepatocyte Fe, or inflammation (IL6) binds to FP transporter, downregulates DMT-1, inhibits Fe release from macrophages control paradigm: in times of low iron, there is low hepcidin so more Fe uptake and release → anemia of chronic inflammatory diseases

Answer 136

secreted by α cells of pancreatic islets in response to low BGL; promotes mobilization of metabolic substrates. LIVER is prinicpal target (inc. cAMP, IP3, Ca)

Answer 137

serotonin stimulates satiety

Answer 138

suppresses hepcidin expression in the liver to generate enough/sufficient RBC

Answer 139

secretory acinar cells make exocrine secretions centroacinar cells make bicarb - reg. by secretin

Answer 140

incompentent LES lets gastric juice reflux back into esophaugus could be caused by hiatal hernia, obesity, pregnancy (progesterone weakens LES contractions), Ca channel blockers, overfilling stomach/exercise after large meal, weak LES

Answer 141

low iron: IBP not bound to Fe so it binds to 5' UTR of ferritin to block translation and to 3' UTR of TfR to protect from endonucleases high iron: IBP bound to Fe so 5' UTR free to translate ferritin, 3' UTR subject to endonucleases so TfR not translated

Answer 142

open LTCCs depolarizations due to increases in gCa, gNa, and decreased gK

Answer 143

interfere with actin phosphorylation, inc. rate of relaxation

Answer 144

from L cells in lower intestine, **co-releasd with GLP-1** to inhibit NPY/AgRP and stimulate POMC (anorexogenic)

Answer 145

hepatocyte reupatake and release of preformed bile; recycled bile used until theres not enough then 7αhydroxylase has to make new bile which breaks the positive feedback loop

Answer 146

bilirubin (70% from heme products) → \*bilirubin → conj. with glucuronic acid → urobilinogen → stercobilinogen → stercobilin (colors feces) \*by bilirubin reducatase

Answer 147

**digestive period**: 2/3 paracellular, 1/3 transcellular **interdigestive period**: 1/3 paracellular, 2/3 transcellular

Answer 148

differentiates secretory from osmotic diarrhea SOG = [290-(stool Na + stool K)] normal = 100-150 secretory = \<100 osmotic = \>150

Answer 149

secreted by liver, an α2 globulin; renin from kidneys converts to ATI which gets to ATII from ACE (lungs) stim. by GCs, TH, estrogens, cytokines, ATII

Answer 150

trehalose: 2 glucose molecules joined lactose: galactose and glucose sucrose: fructose and glucose

Answer 151

there is steric hindrance to bile salts and pancreatic lipase, gets overcome by **pancreatic co-lipase**

Answer 152

grows in dorsal mesogastrium posterior to stomach, suspended by gastrolienal ligamtand and lienorenal ligament

Answer 153

inappropriate increases in fecal water content

Answer 154

smallest functional unit, is a rhombus with PT on short edges, CVs on long edges

Answer 155

* reaction: Co enzyme for carboxylases, post translational modification of glutamate, req. for clotting factors (prothrombin) and osteocalcin * deficiency: impaired clotting/bruising/hemorrhaging * in infants: VKDB (Im injection at birth) * sources: gut bacteria * phylo: dark leafy veggies * mena: fermentated foods/cheese/liver * warfarin is anti clotting drug that inh. vit K reactions

Answer 156

secretions from the SI mucosa and mucosal glands