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Organizational Behavior > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Financial Rewards

A

fundamental part of employment relationship

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2
Q

pay has multiple meanings to different people:

A
  • symbol of success
  • reinforce/motivator
  • reflection of performance
  • reduce anxiety
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3
Q

how is the value of money assumed

A

cultural values influence the meaning and value of money based on the individual

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4
Q

types of rewards in the workplace

A
  • membership/seniority
  • job status
  • competencies
  • performance-based
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5
Q

membership/seniority based rewards

A
  • fixed wages, seniority increases
  • most common
  • advantages: guaranteed wages may attract job applicants, reduce turnover
  • disadvantages: doesn’t motivate job performance (based on seniority), discourages poor performers from leaving, may act as golden handcuffs - ties people to the job

Ex: teacher who gets 10 year doesn’t try anymore

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6
Q

job status based rewards

A

includes job evaluation and status perks

  • advantages: maintain pay equity, motivates competition for promotions
  • disadvantages: employees exaggerated duties, hoard resources, reinforce status hierarchy, inconsistent with workplace flexibility

Ex: VP and higher get special lunches at the cafeteria - make all other employees feel under appreciated so they left

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7
Q

competency based rewards

A

pay increases with competencies acquired and demonstrated
skill-based pay
- advantages: more flexible work force, better quality, consistent with employability
- disadvantages: potentially subjective, higher training costs

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8
Q

performance based rewards

A

different levels of rewards

  • organizational - profit sharing, share ownership, stock options, gainsharing, balanced scorecard
  • team - bonuses, gainsharing
  • individual - bonuses, commissions, piece rate
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9
Q

positive effects of organizational rewards

A
  • creates an “ownership culture”
  • adjusts pay with firm’s prosperity
  • scorecards align rewards with several specific organizational outcomes
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10
Q

concerns with performance pay (organizational rewards)

A
  • weak connection between individual effort and reward

- reward amounts affected by external factors

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11
Q

improving reward effectiveness

A
  • link reward to performance
  • ensure rewards are relevant
  • team rewards for interdependent jobs
  • ensure rewards are valued
  • watch out for unintended consequences

** everyone values things differently

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12
Q

job design

A
  • assigning tasts to a job - including interdependency of tasks with other jobs
  • organization’s goal - create jobs that can be performed efficiently yet employees are motivated and engaged
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13
Q

job specialization

A

dividing work into separate jobs that include a subset of the tasks required to complete the product or service

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14
Q

evaluating job specialization - advantages

A

=less time changing activities

  • lower training costs
  • job mastered quickly
  • better person-job matching
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15
Q

evaluating job specialization - disadvantages

A
  • job boredom
  • discontentment pay
  • higher costs
  • lower quality
  • lower motivation
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16
Q

Job characteristics model

A

core job characteristics
- skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback from job
—>
critical psychological states
- meaningfulness, responsibility, knowledge of results, individual differences
—->
outcomes
- work motivation, growth satisfaction, general satisfaction, work effectiveness

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17
Q

job rotation

A

moving from one job to another

- benefits: minimize repetitive strain injury, multi skills in the workforce, potentially reduces job boredom

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18
Q

job enlargement

A

adding asks to an existing job

Ex: video journalist added to traditional news team

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19
Q

job enrichment

A

given more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and planning one’s own work
1. Clustering tasks into natural groups - stitching the highly interdependent tasks into one job
ex: video journalist assembling the entire product
2. Establishing client relationships
directly responsible for specific clients
communicate directly with those clients

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20
Q

Dimensions of empowerment

A
  1. self-determination = employees feel that they have freedom and discretion
  2. meaning - employees believe their work is important
  3. competence - employees have feelings of self-efficacy (belief that they can successfully complete a task)
  4. impact - employees feel that their actions influence success
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21
Q

supporting employee empowerment to ensure success

A

individual factors - possess required competencies, able to preform the work
job design factors - autonomy, task identity, task significance, job feedback
organizational factors - resources, learning orientation, trust

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22
Q

decision making

A

conscious process of making choices among one or more alternative with the intention of moving toward some desired state of affairs

  • not a factual/logical process
  • emotion = unconscious = where risk comes into play
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23
Q

rational choice decision process

A
  1. identify problem/opportunity (symptom v. problem)
  2. choose decision process (ex. nonprogrammer)
  3. Develop/identify alternatives (search, then develop)
  4. Choose best alternative (subject expected utility)
  5. Implement choice
  6. Evaluate choice
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24
Q

Problem identification process

A

problems and opportunities are not announced or pre-defined
- use logical analysis and non conscious emotional reaction during perceptual process

problem: emotional reaction piece

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25
Q

Problem identification challenges

A
  1. stakeholder framing - vested interest in an outcome - taints view/identification of problem
    Ex. NASA -didn’t want failure framed it to skirt the issue
  2. Perceptual defense - block out bad news
    Ex. didn’t allow for test to prove damage or listen to engineers
  3. Mental models - auto-fill in blank info - “nothing we can do”
  4. Decisive leadership makes decisions too quickly - too much pressure for quick decisions
  5. solution-focused problems - defining problem to support your favorite solution - create problems so they can implement their solution - increase their own self-concept
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26
Q

identifying problems effectively

A
  1. Be aware of perceptual and diagnostic limitations
  2. Fight against pressure to look decisive
  3. Avoid complacency
  4. Discussing the situation with colleagues, see different perspectives

managing perception errors through employee involvement

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27
Q

making choices: rational vs. OB views

A

rational choice paradigm assumptions

  • goals are clear, compatible, and agreed upon
  • people are able to calculate all alternatives and their outcomes
  • people evaluate all alternatives simultaneously

observations from OB

  • goals are ambiguous, conflicting, and lack agreement
  • people have limited information processing abilities
  • people evaluate alternatives sequentially
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28
Q

paralyzed by choice

A
  • when decision makers are presented with more options, they are less likely to make any decision at all
  • occurs even when there are clear benefits of selecting any alternative
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29
Q

emotions and making choices

A
  1. emotions form preferences before we consciously evaluate those choices
  2. moods and emtions influence how well we follow the decision process
  3. we “listen in” on our emotions and use that information to make choices
  4. emotions effect all stages of the decision process
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30
Q

intuitive decision making

A
  • ability to know when a problem or opportunity exists and select the best course of action without conscious reasoning
  • intuition as emotional experience - gut feelings are emotional signals
  • intuition as rapid unconscious analysis - uses action scripts - preprogrammed routines such as pick up the phone to answer it when it rings
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31
Q

pre programmed decision

A

routine, repetitive, almost unconscious reaction

Ex: calling a company to have something fixed, first person goes through a series of scripts to fix it - common problems

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32
Q

non programmed decision

A

brand new + complex situation, emotion comes in = risk

Ex: if the preprogrammed scripts don’t help you move on to a non-programmed person who helps you

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33
Q

post decisional justification

A
  • tendency to inflate quality of the selected option; forget or downplay rejected alternatives
  • results from need to maintain a positive self-identity (self concept)
  • initially produces excessively optimistic evaluation of decision
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34
Q

escalation of commitment

A
  • the tendency to repeat an apparently bad decision or allocate more resources to a failing course of action
  • four main causes:
    1. self-justification - saving face/impression mgmt
    2. prospect theory effect - losing a given amount is more disliked than winning the same amount
    3. perceptual blinders - perceptual defense/screen out bad info
    4. closing costs - costs of ending a project
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35
Q

evaluating decisions more effectively

A
  1. separate decision choosers from evaluators
  2. establish a preset level to abandon the project
  3. find sources of systematic and clear feedback
  4. involve several people in the evaluation process
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36
Q

employee involvement defined

A

degree to which employees influence how their work is organized and carried out
different levels and forms of involvement

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37
Q

employee involvement model

A

potential involvement outcomes:

  • better problem identification
  • synergy produces more/better solutions
  • better at picking the best choice
  • higher decision commitment

effected by contingencies of involvement

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38
Q

contingencies of involvement

A

higher employee involvement is better when:

  1. decision structure - problem is new and complex - nonprogrammed decision
  2. knowledge source - employees have relevant knowledge beyond leader
  3. decision commitment - employees would lack commitment unless involved
  4. risk of conflict - norms support firms goals, employee agreement likely

everyone has their own implicit favorite –> competing = conflict

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39
Q

What are teams?

A

groups of two or more people
exist to fulfill a purpose
interdependent - interact and influence each other
mutually accountable for achieving common goals
perceive themselves as a social entity

becomes identification process

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40
Q

many types of teams

A
  • departmental teams = similar skills (accounting)
  • production/service/leadership teams - multiskilled producing common product (iPhone)
  • self-directed teams - independ work process (hands-off leader)
  • advisory teams - recommendations (consulting)
  • task-force (project) teams - multi-skilled temporary
  • skunkworks - borrowing people/multi skilled/moved outside of organ
  • virtual teams - linked through technology across space, time, location
  • communities of practice - shared expertise - medical practices
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41
Q

informal groups

A

-groups that exist primarily for the benefit of their members not the ultimate output
exist because of:
1. innate drive to bond
2. social identity - we define ourselves by group memberships
3. goal accomplishment
4. emotional support

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42
Q

advantages and disadvantages of teams

A

advantages:

  • make better decisions, products/services
  • better informational sharing
  • higher employee motivation/engagement - fulfills drive to bond, closer scrutiny by team members, team members are benchmarks of comparison

disadvantages:

  • individuals are better/faster on some tasks
  • can limit creativity because of fear of being judge by others (self concept drives this)
  • process losses - cost of developing and maintaining teams
  • social loafing
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43
Q

how to minimize social loafing

A

make individual performance more visible
- form smaller teams, specialize tasks, measure individual performance

increase employee motivation

  • increase job enrichment
  • select motivated employees
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44
Q

team effectiveness model (managed and controlled through team charters)

A

organizational and team environment –>
team design - task characteristics, team size, team composition
—> team processes
- team development, norms, cohesiveness, trust
—>
team effectiveness
- accomplish tasks, satisfy member needs, maintain team survival

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45
Q

organization/team environment

A
  • reward system
  • communications systems
  • organizational structure
  • organizational leadership
  • physical space
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46
Q

team’s task characteristics

A
  • teams work better when tasks are clear, easy to implement
  • learn roles gaster, easier to become cohesive
  • ill-defined tasks require members with diverse background and more time to coordinate
  • teams preferred with higher task interdependence - extent that employees need to share materials, information, or expertise to perform their jobs
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47
Q

Levels of task interdependence

A

High - reciprocal - between A B C
sequential - A –> B –> C
Low - pooled: resource —> A, B, C separately

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48
Q

team size

A

smaller teams tend to be better because:

  • need less time to coordinate roles and resolve differences, develop more member involvement, thus higher commitment
  • but team must be large enough to accomplish task
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49
Q

team composition

A
  • effective team members must be willing and able to work on the team
  • effective team members possess specific competencies (5 Cs)
50
Q

5 C’s of Team Member Competencies

A
  1. Cooperating - share resources, accommodate others
  2. Coordinating - algin work with others, keep them on track
  3. Communicating - share information freely, effectively, respectfully, listen actively
  4. Comforting - show empathy, provide psych comfort, build confidence
  5. Conflict resolving - diagnose conflict sources, use best conflict handing style
51
Q

Team composition: diversity

A

team members have with diverse knowledge, skills, perspectives, values, etc.
Advantages:
- better for creatively solving complex problems, broader knowledge base, better representation of team’s constituents
Disadvantages:
- take longer to become a high-performing team, more susceptible to “faultiness”, increased risk of dysfunctional conflict, more time

52
Q

Stages of team developement

A

1 Forming, establishing boundaries

  1. storming, compete for Roles, norms
  2. norming, establishing roles, team mental models
  3. performing, resolve conflicts, coordination
  4. adjourning

existing teams might regress back to an earlier stage of development due to conflict

53
Q

team development as membership and competence

A

two central processes in team development:

  1. team membership formation - transition from them to us - team goals over individual goals
    - team becomes part of person’s social identity
  2. team competence development - forming routines with others
    - forming shared mental models
    - creating mental model/view about what team is about
54
Q

team roles

A
  • set of behaviors that people are expected to perform
  • some formally assigned, others informally
  • informal role assignment occurs during team development and is related to personal characteristics
55
Q

team building

A

formal activities intended to improve the team’s development and functioning

  • clarify team’s performance goals
  • improve team’s problem-solving skills
  • improve role definitions
  • improve relations

ex: ropes course - creates trust and social identity of the team –> bonds

56
Q

team norms

A

informal rules that shared expectations team establishes to regulate member behaviors
norms developed through
1. initial team experiences
2. critical events in team’s history
3.experience/values members bring to the team

57
Q

preventing/changing dysfunctional team norms

A
  • state desired norms when forming teams
  • select members with preferred values
  • discuss counter-productive norms
  • reward behaviors representing desired norms
  • disband teams with dysfunctional norms
58
Q

team cohesion

A
  • degree of attraction people feel toward the team and their motivation to remain members
  • both cognitive and emotional processes
  • related to the team member’s social identity
59
Q

influences on team cohesion

A

member similarity - attraction effect - feel closer with people who are like you - boosts self concept

  • team size - smaller teams tend to be more cohesive
  • member interaction - regular interaction increases cohesion, calls for tasks with high interdependence
  • somewhat difficult entry - team eliteness increases cohesion, lower cohesion with severe initiation
  • team success - successful teams fulfill member needs, success increases social identity with team
  • external challenges - challenges increase cohesion when not overwhelming
60
Q

team cohesion outcomes

A
  • motivated to remain members
  • willing to share information
  • strong interpersonal bonds
  • resolve conflict effectively
  • better interpersonal relationships
61
Q

trust

A

positive expectations one person has of another person in situations involving risk

  • foundation of team cohesion
  • built through team-building activities
62
Q

virtual teams

A

teams whose members operate across space, time, and organizational boundaries and are linked through information technologies to achieve organizational tasks
- increasingly possible due to - IT, knowledge-based work
increasingly necessary because of
- organizational learning, globalization

63
Q

virtual team success factors

A

member characteristics

  • technology savvy
  • self-leadership skills
  • emotional intelligence
  • flexible use of communication technologies
  • opportunities to meet face to face
64
Q

team decision making constraints

A

time - time to organize/coordinate, production blocking
evaluation apprehension - belief hat others are silently evaluating you
peer pressure to conform - suppressing opinions that oppose team norms
groupthink - tendency in highly cohesive teams to value consensus at the price of decision quality, concept losing favor - consider more specific features
- surrounded by enablers - leader has passionate view - team members afraid to go against it

65
Q

general guidelines for team decisions

A
  • team norms should encourage critical thinking and creativity - thinking outside the box
  • sufficient team diversity
  • ensure neither leader nor any member dominates
  • maintain optimal team size
  • introduce effective team structures
66
Q

constructive conflict

A
  • people focus their discussion on the issue while maintaining respectfulness for others having different points of view
  • problem: constructive conflict easily slides into personal attacks (relationship conflicts)
67
Q

communication defined

A
  • process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people
  • effective communication - transmitting intended meaning (not just symbols)
68
Q

importance of communication

A
  1. coordinating work activities
  2. organizational learning and decision making
  3. employee well-being
69
Q

Communication process model

A

sender:
form message, encode message, transmit message
reciever
receive encoded message, decode message, form feedback, encode feedback, transmit message
sender
receive feedback, decode feedback

70
Q

improving communication coding/decoding

A
  1. both parties have motivation and ability to communication through the channel
  2. both parties carry the same “codebook”/norms come into play here
  3. both parties share similar mental models of the communication context
  4. sender is experienced at communication the message topic
71
Q

how e-mail has altered communication

A
  • now preferred medium for coordinating work
  • tends to increase communication volume
  • significantly alters communication flow
  • reduces some selective attention biases
72
Q

Problems with e-mail

A
  • communicates emotions poorly
  • reduces politeness and respect
  • inefficient for ambiguous, complex, novel situations
  • increases information overload
73
Q

nonverbal communication

A
  • actions, facial gestures, etc.
  • influences meaning of verbal symbols
  • less rule bound than verbal communication
  • important part of emotional labor
  • most is automatic and unconscious
74
Q

emotional contagion

A
  • the automatic process of sharing another person’s emotions by mimicking their facial expressions and other nonverbal behavior
    3 purposes:
    1. provides continuous feedback to speaker
    2. increases emotional understanding of the other person’s experience
    3. communicates a collective sentiment - sharing the experience
75
Q

choosing the best communication channel: media richness

A 
the channel's data-carrying capacity needs to be aligned with the communication activity 
High richness when channel:
1. conveys multiple cues
2. allows timely feedback
3. allows customized message
4. permits complex symbols

use rich communication media when the situation is non-routine and ambiguous

76
Q

hierarchy of media richness

A 
face-to-face
video conference
telephone
instant messaging 
e-mail
web blogs
newsletters
financial statements
77
Q

persuasive communication

A
  • changing another person’s beliefs and attitudes
  • spoken communication is more persuasive because:
    1. accompanied by nonverbal communication, adding emotional punch to the message
    2. has high quality immediate feedback whether message is understood and accepted
    3. has high social presence, so receiver is more sensitive to message content and more motivated to accept the message
78
Q

Communication barriers

A

perceptions
filtering
language - jargon, ambiguity
information overload

79
Q

cross-cultural communication

A

verbal differences - language, voice intonation, silence/conversation overlaps
nonverbal differences - interpreting nonverbal meaning, importance of verbal vs. nonverbal

80
Q

getting your message across

A
  1. empathize
  2. repeat the message
  3. use timing effectively
  4. be descriptive
81
Q

active listening process and strategies

A

sensing - postpone evaluation, avoid interruptions, maintain interest
–>
evaluating - empathize, organize information
—>
responding - show interest, clarify the message
—>
sensing, etc.

82
Q

meaning of power

A

capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others

  • potential, not actual use
  • people have power they don’t use - may not know they possess
  • perception
83
Q

power and dependence

A

countervailing power situation - boss needs you to do work, you need to do work to maintain job - influence is a 2 way street

84
Q

model of power in organizations

A

sources of power –> power over others

contingencies of power influence it too

85
Q

5 sources of power

A 
legitimate
reward
coercive
expert
referent
86
Q

legitimate power

A
  • agreement that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others
  • based on job descriptions and mutual agreement
  • legitimate power range (zone of indifference) varies across national and org cultures
87
Q

reward power

A
  • ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and not to remove negative sanctions
  • operates upward as well as downward
88
Q

Coercive power

A
  • ability to apply punishment
  • exists upwards and downwards
  • Ex: peer pressure
89
Q

expert power

A
  • capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge of skills that they value
  • more employee expert power over companies in knowledge economy
90
Q

referent power

A
  • occurs when others identify with, like, or otherwise respect the person
  • charismatic leaders/connectors
91
Q

Ranking of the types of power

A 
referent
legitimate
expert
reward
coercive
92
Q

contingencies of power

A

sources of power –> power over others (contingencies influence)

subsituability
centrality
discretion
visibility

93
Q

increasing nonsubstituatability

A
  • few/no alternatives to the resource
  • increase nonsubstituability by controlling the resources
  • exclusive right to perform medical procedures
  • control over skilled labor
  • exclusive knowledge to repair equipment
  • differentiate resource from others
94
Q

centrality

A

degree and nature of interdependence between powerholder and others
centrality is a function of:
1. how many others are effected by you
2 how quickly others are affected by you

95
Q

discretion and visibility

A

discretion - freedom to exercise judgement, rules limit discretion, limit power, also a perception - acting as if you have discretion

visibility - symbols communicate your power source(s) - educational diplomas, clothing, etc.
- salience - location = others more aware of your presence

96
Q

social networking and power

A

cultivating social relationships with others to accomplish one’s goals

increase power through

  • social capital
  • referent power
  • visibility and centrality contingencies
97
Q

influencing others

A

influence - any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior

  • applies one or more power bases
  • process through which people achieve organizational objectives
  • operates up, down, and across the organizational hierarchy
98
Q

types of influence - silent authority

A

following requests without overt influence, based on legitimate power, role modeling, common in high power distance cultures

99
Q

types of influence - assertiveness

A

actively applying legitimate and coercive power “vocal authority”
reminding, confronting, checking, threatening

100
Q

types of influence - information control

A

manipulating others’ access to information, withholding, filtering, re-arranging information

101
Q

types of influence - coalition formation

A
  • group forms to gain more power than individuals alone
    1. pools resources/power
    2. legitimizes the issue
    3. power through social identity
102
Q

types of influence - upward appeal

A

appealing to higher authority, includes appealing to firm’s goals, alliance or perceived alliance with higher status person

103
Q

types of influence - persuasion

A

logic, facts, emotional appeals, depends on persuader, message content, message medium, audience

104
Q

types of influence - ingratiation/ impression mgmt

A

increase liking by or perceived similarity to the target person

105
Q

types of influence - exchange

A

promising or reminding of past benefits in exchange for compliance, includes negotiation and networking

106
Q

consequences of influence tactics

A

hard influence tactics

  • silent authority
  • upward appeal
  • coalition formation
  • information control
  • assertiveness

soft influence tactics

  • persuasion
  • ingratiation and impression mgmt
  • exchange

resistance compliance, commitment influence all

107
Q

contingencies of influence tactics

A
  • soft tactics generally more acceptable than hard tactics
  • appropriate influence tactic depends on
    1. influencer’s power base
    2. organizational position
    3. cultural values and expectations
108
Q

conflict defined

A

process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affect by another party

109
Q

is conflict good or bad? emerging view

A

two types of conflict

  • constructive conflict - conflict is aimed at issues, not parties (factual) - aimed at ideas
  • relationship conflict - conflict is aimed at undermining the other party (based on emotions) - slides into personal attack

goal: encourage constructive conflict, minimize relationship conflict
problem: difficult to separate constructive from relationship conflict - drive to defend activated when ideas are critiqued

110
Q

minimizing relationship conflict

A

3 conditions that minimize relationship conflict while engaging in constructive conflict

  1. emotional intelligence
  2. cohesive team
  3. supportive team norms
111
Q

structural sources of conflict

A
  1. incompatible goals - one party’s goals perceived to interfere with other’s goals
  2. differentiation - different values/beliefs, explains cross-cultural and generational conflict
  3. task interdependence - conflict increases with interdependence, parties more likely to interfere with each other
  4. scarce resources - motivates competition for the resource
  5. ambiguous rules - creates uncertainty, threatens goals, without rules, people rely on politics
  6. communication problems - increases stereotyping, reduces motivation to communicate, escalates conflict when arrogant
112
Q

interpersonal conflict handing styles

A

win-win orientation
- believe parties will find a mutually beneficial solution

win-lose orientation
- belief that the more one party receives, the less the other receives

113
Q

five conflict handling styles

A

forcing - high assertive, low cooperative
problem solving - high assertiveness and cooperativeness
compromising - middle of both
avoiding - low both
avoiding - high cooperativeness low assertiveness

114
Q

conflict handling contingencies - problem solving

A 
win-win
best when:
- interests are not perfectly opposing
- parties have trust/openness 
- issues are complex
problem: other party take advantage of information
115
Q

conflict handling contingencies - forcing

A

win-lose
best when:
- you have a deep conviction about your position
- quick resolution required
- other party would take advantage of cooperation
Problems: relationship conflict, long-term relations

116
Q

conflict handling contingencies - avoiding

A 
win-lose
best when:
- relationship conflict is high
- conflict resolution cost is higher than benefits
Problems: doesn't resolve conflict
117
Q

conflict handling contingencies - yielding

A

win-lose
best when:
- other party has much more power
-issue is much less important to you than other party
- value/logic of your position is imperfect
Problem: increases other party’s expectations

118
Q

conflict handling contingencies - compromising

A 
win-win
best when:
- parties have equal power
- quick solution is required
- parties lack trust/openness 
Problem: sub-optimal solution where mutual gains are possible
119
Q

resolving conflict through negotiation

A

negotiation - attempting to resolve divergent goals by redefining terms of interdependence

wich conflict handling style is best in negotiation?

  • begin cautiously with problem-solving style
  • shift to a win- lose style when mutual gains situation isn’t apparent, other part won’t reciprocate into sharing
120
Q

bargaining zone model

A

area of potential agreement - small

negotiation and compromise goes much faster
see chart from chapter notes

Organizational Behavior (2 decks)

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