Exam 1 Flashcards
organizational behavior
the study of what people think, feel and do in and around organizations
organizations
groups of people who work interdependently toward some purpose
why study ob?
- need to understand and predict ones own behavior and the behavior of others
- influence behavior of others
- improves financial health
4 perspectives of organizational effectiveness
open systems
organizational learning
high-performance WP
stakeholder
open systems perspective
organizations are complex systems that “live” within and depend upon the external environment
effective organizations maintain a close fit with changing conditions, transform inputs to outputs with efficiency and flexibility, maintain corporate advantage
lays the foundation for the other 3 perspectives
organizational learning perspective
organizations capacity to acquire, share, use, and store valuable knowledge
considers both stock and flow of knowledge
stock : intellectual capital
flow: org learning process of acquisition, sharing, and use
intellectual capital
human capital - knowledge people posses and generate
structural capital -captured in systems and structures
relationship capital - value derived from satisfied customers, reliable suppliers, etc
organizational learning process
knowledge acquisition -> knowledge sharing -> knowledge use
organizational memory
store and preservation of intellectual capital
retained through: keeping knowledgeable employees, transferring knowledge to others, transferring human capital to structural capital
successful companies also unlearn - remove knowledge that no longer adds value
High performance work practices
internal systems and structures that are associated with successful companies
- employees are competitive advantage - people are the most important resource
- value of employees increased though specific practices - valuable when part of the solution and not the problem
- maximum benefit when org practices are bundled
HPWPs include…
employee involvement - more involvement = more interest in achieving a good outcome job autonomy employee competence (training, selection, etc.) performance-based rewards
stakeholder perspective
stakeholder - any entity who affects or is affected by the firm’s objectives and actions
personalizes the open systems perspective
5 types of individual behavior
task performance organizational citizenship counterproductive work behaviors joining/staying with the organization maintaining work attendance
task performance
goal-directed behaviors under a person’s control - to preform a task
organizational citizenship
cooperation and helpfulness beyond required job duties - assisting coworkers
counterproductive work behaviors
voluntary behaviors that potentially harm the organization - threats, abuse, avoidance
joining/staying with the organization
agreeing to the employment relationship - remaining in that relationship = loyalty
maintaining work attendance
attending work at required times - through situational factors, motivational factors
globalization
economic, social, and cultural connectivity with people in other parts of the world
How does this affect an individuals ability to perform a job within an organization?
effects of globalization on organizations
new structures
increasing diversity
increasing competitive pressures
increasing workforce diversity
surface level - observable demographic and other overt differences in people (race, ethnicity, gender, etc.)
deep level - differences in psychological characteristics - personalities, beliefs, values, attitudes
implications - leveraging diversity advantage
diversity challenges
ethical imperative of diversity
employment relationships
work/life balance - minimizing conflict between work and non work demands = number 1 indicator of career success - why?
virtual work - using IT to perform one’s job away from the physical work place
telework - issues of replacing face time, clarifying employment expectations. face time is more effective in communicating - why?
MARS model of individual behavior
Motivation Ability Role Perceptions Situational Factors = individual behavior and results
MARS is influenced by a persons’ values, personality, emotions, attitudes, stress, etc.
employee motivation
internal forces that affect a person’s voluntary choice of behavior
direction, intensity, persistence
employee ability
natural aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task
competencies - personal characteristics that lead to superior performance
person-job matching
selecting, developing, redesigning
role perceptions
beliefs about what behavior is required to achieve the desired results
understanding what tasks to perform
understanding relative importance of tasks
understanding preferred behaviors to accomplish tasks
situational factors
environmental conditions beyond the individuals short term control that constrain or facilitate behavior time people budget work facilities
defining personality
relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics
external traits - observable factors
internal states - thoughts, values, inferred from behaviors
some variability - adjust to the situation
nature v nurture of personality
nature - hereditary explains about 50 percent of behavioral tendencies and 30 percent of temperament
influenced by nature - socialization, life experience, learning effect personality
personality isn’t stable at birth, stabilizes throughout adolescent
self concept steers our personality and behavior
self concept
an individual’s self-beliefs and self-evaluations
Who am I? How do I feel about myself?
guides individual decisions and behaviors
helps us make sense of the world and how we make sense of it
4 selves of self concept
self enhancement - promoting/protecting our positive self view
self verification - affirming our existing self-concept (good and bad elements)
self-evaluation - evaluating ourselves through self esteem, self efficacy - persons own belief that they can complete a task
social self - defining ourselves in terms of group membership
self enhancement
drive to promote/protect a positive self-view
strongest in common/important situations
outcomes:
better personal adjustment and mental/physical health
inflates personal causation and probability of success
self verification
motivation to verify/maintain our existing self concept
outcomes:
ignore/reject info inconsistent with self-concept
interact more with those who affirm/reflect self-concept
self evaluation
self esteem
self efficacy - belief in one’s ability, motivation, role perceptions to complete a task successfully
locus of control - general belief about personal control over life events
social self
social identity theory - defining ourselves in terms of groups to which we belong or have an emotional attachment
we identify with groups that have high status - why? - aids self enhancement
values in the workplace
stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences
define right and wrong, good or bad decision making
value system - hierarchy of values, individualized
values across cultures - individualism v. collectivism
collectivism - degree that people value duty to their group
individualism - independence and person uniqueness
different countries have different values - each manage differently
individualism
degree to which people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control over themselves, being appreciated for unique qualities
high: US, Italy
low: Taiwan
collectivism
degree to which people value their group membership and harmonious relationships within the group
high: Italy, Taiwan
low: US
power distance
high: value obedience to authority, comfortable receiving commands from superiors, prefer formal rules and authority to resolve conflict
Malaysia
Venezuela
low: expect relatively equal power sharing, view relationships with boss as interdependence not dependence
Denmark, Israel
Uncertainty Avoidance
high: feel threatened by ambiguity and uncertainty, value structured situations and direct communication
Greece, Japan
low: tolerates ambiguity and uncertainty
Singapore
achievement nurturing
high achievement: assertiveness, competitiveness, materialism
Japan
high nurturing: relationships, others well being
3 ethical principles used in guidance
utilitarianism - greatest good for the greatest people
individual rights - fundamental entitlements in society - such as free speech, fair trial
distributive justice - people who are similar should receive similar beliefs
supporting ethical behavior within organizations
ethical code of conduct
ethics training
ethics hotlines
ethical leadership and culture
perception
process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us
what to notice
how to categorize it
how to interpret it
selective attention
filtering information through senses influences
confirmation bias
screen out information contrary to our beliefs/values
perceptual organization/interpretation
categorical thinking - non conscious process of organizing people/things
perceptual grouping principles: similarity/proximity, closure - filling in the missing pieces, perceiving trends
interpreting incoming information
mental models in perceptions
broad world views/theories in use
help us to quickly make sense of situations - fill in missing pieces, help to predict events
problem with mental models - may block recognition of new opportunities/perspectives
three social identity process
categorization - compare characteristics of our group with other groups
homogenization - similar traits within a group, different traits across groups
differentiation - develop less favorable images of people in groups other than our own
stereotyping
assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category
occurs because:
categorical thinking
innate drive to understand/anticipate others behavior
enhances our self concept
stereotyping issues
overgeneralizes
basis of discrimination
overcoming:
difficult to prevent stereotype activation
possible to minimize stereotype application
perceptual errors
halo effect - one trait forms a general impression
primacy effect - first impressions
recency effect - most recent information dominates perceptions
false consensus effect - overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own
strategies to improve perceptions
- awareness of perceptual bias
- improving self awareness
- meaningful interaction - close, frequent interaction toward a shared goal, equal status, engaged in a meaningful task
learning
relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior tendency) that occurs as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment
explicit v. tacit knowledge
explicit - knowledge that is articulated through language, such as documents
tacit - knowledge acquired through observations and direct experience
behavior modification
we “operate” on the environment
alter behavior to maximize positive and minimize adverse consequences
takes the extreme view that learning is viewed as completely dependent on the environment
ABCs of behavior modification
Antecedents - what happens before behavior
Behavior - what a person says/does
Consequences - what happens after behavior
ex: warning light flashes, machine operator turns off power, co-workers thank operator
contingencies of reinforcement
see chart from slides
consequence introduced, no consequence, consequence removed
v.
behavior increased/maintained
behavior decreases
social learning theory
behavioral modeling - observing and modeling behavior of others
learning behavior consequences - observing consequences that others experience
self-reinforcement - reinforcing our own behavior with consequences within our control
learning through experience
most tacit knowledge and skills are acquired through experience and observation
experiential learning steps: engagement with environment reflecting on experience experimenting our reflection learning/writing in class allows you to think beyond the obvious
developing a learning orientation
value the generation of new knowledge
reward experimentation
recognize mistakes as part of learning
encourage employees to take reasonable risks
organizational learning = organization effectiveness
knowledge acquisition
knowledge sharing
knowledge use
knowledge acquisition
extracting information and ideas from the external environment as well as through insight
knowledge sharing
distributing knowledge to others across the organization
knowledge use
applying knowledge in ways that adds value to the organization and its stakeholders
emotions
psychological, behavioral, and physiological episodes experienced towards an object, person, or event that create a state of readiness
occur without our awareness
moods - lower intensity emotions without any specific target source
attitudes v emotions
attitudes
judgements about an object
based mainly on rational logic
usually stable for days or longer
emotions
experiences related to an attitude object
based on innate and learned responses to environment
usually experienced for seconds or less
traditional model of attitudes
cognitive approach
beliefs: established perceptions of attitude object
feelings: calculation of good or bad based on beliefs about the attitude object
behavioral intentions: motivation to act in response to the attitude object
problem: ignores important role of emotions in shaping attitudes
how emotions influence attitudes
- feelings are shaped by cumulative emotional episodes (not just evaluation of beliefs)
- we listen in on our emotions when determining our attitude toward something
emotional also directly affect behavior - ex facial expression
cognitive dissonance
state of anxiety that occurs when an individual’s beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are inconsistent with one another
ex: doing something you think you have to do, but don’t want to
emotional labor
effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions
emotional labor is higher when job requires:
- frequent and long duration display of emotions
- displaying a variety of emotions
- displaying more intense emotions
emotional labor across cultures
displaying or hiding emotions carries across cultures
minimal - Korea, Japan, Austria
encouraged - Kuwait, Russia, Egypt
emotional labor challenges
difficult to display expected emotions accurately and to hide true emotions
emotional dissonance
conflict between true and required emotions
potentially stressful with surface acting
less stress through deep acting
showing the emotion you’re supposed to show, not what you feel
ex: dealing with mentally unstable children, have to remain positive even though you feel shitty about it
emotional intelligence
ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion and regulate emotion in oneself and others
model of emotional intelligence (low to high)
self awareness - perceiving and understanding the meaning of your own emotions and mental models
self management - managing our own emotions
social awareness - perceiving and understanding the meaning of other’s emotions
relationship management - managing other peoples emotions and influencing behavior
have to have the first before you can move up the line
improving emotional intelligence
set of competencies, aptitudes, skills
can be learned, especially through coaching
EI increases with age - maturity
job satisfaction
a person’s evaluation of his or her job and work content
collection of attitudes about specific facets of the job
EVLN: responses to dissatisfaction
Exit: leaving the situation, transfer, quitting
Voice: changing the situation, problem solving, complaining
Loyalty: patiently waiting for the situation to improve
Neglect: reducing work effort/quality, increasing absenteeism
goal: decrease turnover rate
organizational commitment
building it lowers turnover rate
affective commitment - emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in an organization
continuance commitment - calculative attachment – stay because its too costly to quit
building affective commitment
justice/support - apply humanitarian values, support employee wellbeing
shared values - values congruence
trust - employees trust org leader, job security supports trust
organizational comprehension - know firms past/present/future, open and rapid communication
employee involvement - employees feel part of company, involvement demonstrates trust
stress
adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being
physiological and psychological condition that prepares us to adapt to hostile or noxious environmental conditions
eustress (healthy stress) v. distress (unhealthy stress)
consequences of distress
physiological - cardiovasc disease, headache, hypertension
behavioral - work performance, absenteeism, accidents, aggression, poor decisions
psychological - dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression, emotional fatigue
job burnout process
interpersonal and role related stressors --> emotional exhaustion --> cynicism --> reduced personal accomplishment --> consequences
stressors
causes of stress - any environmental condition that places a physical or emotional demand on the person
ex: harassment, overload, low task control
managing work related stress
remove the stressor withdraw from the stressor change stress perceptions - positive self-concept, humor control stress consequences receive social support
Motivation
forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior
exerting a particular effort level (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence), towards a particular goal (direction)
employee engagement
emotional and cognitive motivation, clear understanding of one’s role in the organization’s vision and a belief that one has the resources to perform the job
how do employees stay engaged?
fulfill their needs and expectations, create organizational commitment and trust, continually motivate them
drives
drives = primary needs
neutral states that energize individuals to correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium
prime movers of behaviors by activation emotions
self concept, social norms, past experience influence in between drives and needs and needs and decisions/behavior
drives –> needs –> decisions/behavior
Needs
goal-directed forces that people experience
drive-generated emotions directed towards goals
goals formed by self-concept, social norms, experience
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Self-actualization Need to know
Esteem Need for beauty
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
lowest unmet need has strongest effect
when lower need is satisfied, next higher need becomes primary motivator
self-actualization
a growth need because people desire more rather than less of it when satisfied
Criticisms Maslow’s hierarchy
people have different need hierarchies, don’t progress through needs in the same order
needs change more rapidly than Maslow stated
What is wrong with needs hierarchy models?
wrongly assume that everyone has the same needs hierarchy (i.e. universal)
we have our own unique needs hierarchy - shaped by our own values, identity, self-concept
learned needs theory
needs are amplified or suppressed through self-concept, social norms, and past experience
needs can be “learned” - strengthened/weakened through training
3 learned needs
Achievement - need to reach goals, take responsibility
want reasonably challenging goals
Affiliation - desire to seek approval, conform to others wishes, avoid conflict
effective executives have lower need for social approval
Power - desire to control one’s environment
personalized v. socialized power
4 Drive Theory
Acquire = take/keep objects and experiences, basis of hierarchy and status
Bond - form relationships and social commitments, basis of social identity
Learn - satisfy curiosity and resolve conflicting information
Defend - protect ourselves, reactive not proactive drive, basis of flight or fight
social norms, personal values, and experience transform drive-based emotions into goal-directed choice and effort
features of 4 drives theory
innate and hardwired - everyone has them
independent of each other - no hierarchy
complete set - no drives excluded
Expectancy theory of motivation
effort –> performance –> outcome 1/2/3
Increasing E to P expectancies
Expectancy theory of motivation
assuring employees they have competencies
person-job matching
provide role clarification and sufficient resources
behavioral modeling
Increasing P to O expectancies
Expectancy theory of motivation
measure performance accurately
more rewards for good performance
explain how rewards are linked to performance
increasing outcome variance (expectancy theory of motivation)
ensure that rewards are valued
individualize rewards
minimize countervalent outcomes
goal setting
process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives
effective goal setting characteristics
specific - measurable change within a time frame
relevant - within employee’s control and responsibilities
challenging - raise level of effort
accepted (commitment) - motivated to accomplish the goal
participative (sometimes) - improves acceptance and goal quality
feedback - informational available about progress toward goal
effective feedback characteristics
specific - connected to goal details
relevant - relates to person’s behavior
timely - to improve link from behavior to outcomes
sufficiently frequent - employee’s knowledge/experience, task cycle
credible - trustworthy source
feedback through strength based coaching
maximizing person’s potential by focusing on their strengths rather than weaknesses
motivational:
- people inherently seek feedback about their strengths, not their flaws
- persons’ interest, preferences, and competencies stabilize over time
multi source feedback (360 degree feedback)
received from a full circle of people around the employee
provides more complete and accurate information
evaluating goal setting and feedback
has high validity and usefulness
limitations:
focuses employees on measurable performance
motivates employees to set easy goals (when tied to pay)
goal setting interferes with learning process in new, complex jobs
organizational justice
distributive - perceived fairness in outcomes we receive relative to our contributions and the outcomes and contributions of others
procedural justice - perceived fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources
Equity theory
outcome/input ratio
input - what employee contributes (ex skill)
outcomes - what employee receives (ex pay)
comparison other
people against whom we compare our ratio
not easily identifiable
equity evaluation
compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison other
