Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is learning
A
the change in a persons/organisms behavior/thought as a result of experience.
2
Q
Classical conditioning
A
take something neutral and pair it with something that causes a response. Neutral predicts unconditioned stimulus start responding to the previously neutral thing.
3
Q
unconditioned stimulus
A
something in the environment that causes a natural/automatic response (meat powder)
4
Q
unconditioned response
A
the unlearned response that occurs naturally/automatically (salivating)
5
Q
conditioned stimulus
A
a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response (metronome)
6
Q
conditioned response
A
the learned response to the preciously neutral stimulus
7
Q
phases of classical conditioning
A
acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery.
8
Q
Acquisition
A
learning phase during which a conditioned response is established .
9
Q
extinction
A
gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly w/o the unconditioned stimulus
10
Q
spontaneous recovery
A
sudden reemergence of an extinct conditioned response (often in a somewhat weaker form) after a delay in exposure to the conditioned stimulus
11
Q
stimulus generalization
A
process by which a conditioned stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus elicit a conditioned response. the more similar the new CS and the old CS are, the stronger the CR
12
Q
stimulus discrimination
A
process by which organism display a less pronounced conditioned response to conditioned stimuli that differ from the original conditioned stimulus
13
Q
higher order conditioning
A
developing a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus by virtue of association w/ another conditioned stimulus
14
Q
operant conditioning
A
learning in which the consequences of the organisms behavior affect the likelihood that it’ll repeat the behavior. behavior -> consequence
15
Q
differences between classical and operant conditioning
A
classical: behavior happens automatically. behavior doesn’t affect reward.
Operant: behavior is voluntary. reward is dependent on behavior
16
Q
positive/negative
A
adding or subtracting after the behavior
17
Q
reinforcement/punishment
A
increasing or decreasing the likelihood of the behavior being repeated
18
Q
problems with punishment
A
it tells you what not to do but not what do do . can cause anxiety. can lead to subverse behaviors. may model aggressive behaviors
19
Q
how to punish well
A
recommend a better behavior, the punishment should occur immediately after the behavior. explain why the behavior is being punished. be consistent. don’t go overboard
20
Q
discriminative stimulus
A
stimulus that signals presence of reinforcement/punishment
21
Q
phases of operant conditioning
A
acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery.
22
Q
continuous reinforcement
A
reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. faster learning but faster extinction
23
Q
partial/intermittent reinforcement
A
only occasional reinforcement of a behavior
24
Q
fixed
A
reinforced on a regular basis; predictable
25
variable
reinforced on a irregular basis; unpredictable. more consistent rates of responding
26
ratio
based on number of responses emitted
27
interval
based on the amount of time elapsed since the last reinforcement
28
fixed ratio
provide reinforcement after a regular number of responses
29
variable ratio
reinforcement after an unpredictable amount of responses (highest rate of behavior)
30
fixed interval
reinforcement of the response has been produced at least once during a specific period of time
31
variable interval
reinforcement for producing the response after an unpredictable unspecified amount of time
32
shaping
progressively reinforcing behaviors come closer and closer to the target behavior. common in animal training. reinforce all behaviors then gradually decrease it for not quite right behaviors
33
observational learning
learning by watching others
34
developmental psychology
the study of changes in the body, mind, and interpersonal interaction over the life span.
35
pasthoc fallacy
fuses assumption that bc one event occurred before another event, it must've caused it.
36
bidirectional influences
parents influence their kids behavior which in turn influences the parents' behavior
37
cross sectional
research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time
38
coherts effects
effects observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the same group
39
coherts effects
effects observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the same group
40
longitudinal
research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time
41
problems with longitudinal studies
costly, time consuming, attrition (drop outs)
42
cognitive development
how we acquire the ability to learn, think, and reason
43
Piaget's theory stages
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations,formal operations
44
sensorimotor stage
focus on the here and now w/o the ability to represent the experiences mentally; no thought beyond immediate physical experiences. 0-2 yrs old. main source of knowledge, thinking and experience and their physical interaction with the world
45
object permanence
understanding that objects continue to exist when out of view (sensorimotor stage)
46
pre-operational stage
the ability to use language and other symbols for real objects; able to think beyond the here and now, but egocentric and unable to perform mental transformations
47
egocentricism
inability to see the world from others' perspective
48
concrete operational stage
ability to think logically about concrete physical objects only. ages 7-11. need physical experiences to tether mental operations. can't do abstract thinking
49
formal operation stage
ability to perform hypothetical abstract reasoning. doesn't merge until adolescence. can hypothesize outcomes, if-then statements, either- or, and thinking about abstract questions
50
problems with Piaget's theory
development is more continuous rather than in stages. some of what he found appears to be due to task demands
51
theory of mind
understanding thoughts, feelings, intentions, and other mental activities of ourselves and others
52
stranger anxiety
fear of strangers. develops 8-9 months increases 12-15.
53
attachment
strong emotional connection we have with those to whom we feel closest.
54
how is attachment measured in 1 yr olds
"strange situation" being separated from parent when stranger walks in, then see how they react when parent comes back
55
types of attachment
secure, secure-avoident, insecure anxious, disorganized.
56
attachment styles outcomes
secure attachment: tends to be associated with being more well adjusted, self-reliant, helpful, happier and empathetic
insecure-anxious: associated with being disliked and mistreated by peers in childhood.
57
parenting styles
permissive, authoritarian, authoritative, uninvolved.
58
permissive
lenient. allowing kids freedom inside and outside of house
59
authoritarian
strict. giving little freedom. requires unquestioning obedience
60
authoritative
supportive of kids, set clear and firm limits, explain why rules are in place.
61
outcomes authoritative parenting
authoritative: the best social and emotional adjustment and lowest levels of behavioral problems
62
outcomes of uninvolved parents
they do the worst
63
average expectable environment
environment that provide with basic needs fr affection and discipline
64
types of aggression
overt and relational
65
overt aggression
physical damage (or the threat of it) is the agent of harm
66
relational aggression
damage to ones relationship (or threat of it) is the agent of harm
67
gender and type of aggression
girls are more relational aggressive
68
what predicts girls will be relationally aggressive
parenting styles (permissive and authoritarian). influence of friends
69
self control
the ability to inhibit an impulse to act
70
marshmallow effect
children at age 4 have to wait to eat their marshmallow.
71
what does the marshmallow effect predict
predicts superior ability to cope with frustration in adolescence, SAT scores and likelihood of being overweight in adulthood
72
how emotion is measured
free response, likert scale, behavioral observation, physiological measures
73
free response
"please descrbe what emotions you feel when__"
74
pros and cons of free response
pro: can report exactly how they feel
con: idk
75
likert scale
on a scale of 1-10 how do you feel
76
pros and cons of likert scale
cons: numbers have different meaning to different people
77
behavioral observation
involves watching and recording the behavior of a person in typical environment
78
physiological measures
heart rate, skin conductance, MRI, PET,
79
problems with physiological measures
expensive and time consuming
80
discrete emotions theory
the theory that humans experience a small number of distinct emotions that are rooted in their biology. emotions may combine in complex ways. suggests that each emotion has its own biological roots.
81
support for evolutionary basis of emotion
some emotional expression (smiling) occur without reinforcement
82
universal emotions
happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, disgust, contempt, fear. pride? awe?
83
display rules
societal guidelines for how and when to express emotions. actual emotions don't necessarily change between cultures, but display emotions may
84
duchenne smile
real smile. upward turn of the corners of the mouth. eye crinkles
85
pan am smile
fake smile. moves mouth but not eyes.
86
emotoinal labor
the effort planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transaction
87
surface acting
display required emotions but their is no attempt to actually feel those emotions
88
deep acting
controlling internal thoughts and feelings to meet mandated display rules
89
cognitive theories of emotions
theories proposing that emotions are products of thinking.
90
two factor theory of emotion
proposes that emotions are produced by an undifferentiated state of arousal along with an attribution(explanation) of arousal. encounter an emotion provoking event-> experience a state of undifferentiated arousal
91
undifferentiated arousal
arousal that is the same across all emotions
92
bridge study
attractive woman asked men for help on survey on two different level bridges. the men on the higher bridge called her back more
93
cognitive appraisal theory
External events, goals, and beliefs lead to appraisal lead to emotion lead to coping problem and emotion focused
94
proximity
physical nearness.
95
mere exposure effect
repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably towards it.
96
what promotes attraction
proximity, similarity, reciprocity, physical attractiveness
97
reciprocity
give and take
98
face averaging
Averageness theory claims that faces are perceived as attractive when their facial configuration approximates the mathematical average facial configuration of the population
99
lying
verbal cues are better indicators of lying.
100
what predicts that someone is lying
dishonest statements tend to contain fewer details and fewer qualifiers than truthful statements
101
how accurate are we at predicting lying
55% correct
102
what do polygraphs measure
physiological signs that reflect anxiety. BP, respiration, palm sweat
103
what kind of polygraph questions are asked
relevant questions (have to do with crime in question). irrelevant questions (not relevant to the crime or to the subject lying). control questions (reflect possible lies. try to see what their lies look like)
104
What reasons are there for polygraphs not being accurate?
confuses arousal (eg fear) with lying. fear of getting convicted of crime they didn't commit. false negatives
105
integrity tests
tests that attempt to access workers' tendencies to steal, cheat etc.
106
types of integrity tests
history of negative behavior, attitudes towards stealing, perceptions of other ppls honesty. they predict negative workplace behaviors
107
conformity
the tendency of ppl to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure
108
asch study
ppl in a group purposely answer the question wrong for the line question.
109
social psychology
the branch of psychology that deals with social interactions, including their origins and their effects on the individual.
110
what increases the likelihood of conformity
environment. unity of agreement, difference in the wrong answer. individual difference. low self esteem
111
deindividualzation
tendency of ppl to encourage in characteristic behaviors then they're stripped of their usual identities. (Stanford prison experiment)
112
when is deindivdualization more likely to occur
having a feeling of anonymity. feel that you lack personal responsibilities
113
obedience
adherence to instructions from those of higher authority. required to society to work
114
milgrim study
ppl shock other ppl
115
what tends to inc. and dec. obedience
psychological distance between the subject and the experimenter. the psychological distance between the subject and the "learner". less prestigious setting
116
bystander effect
the presence of others discourages an individual from intervening in an emergency situation.
117
diffusion of responsibility
a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when others are present “Someone else will step up and take care of it.”
118
dual process model of persuasion
central pathway and peripheral pathway
119
central pathway
evaluates the merits of the persuasive argument carefully and thoughtfully. focus on content. when motivated and have time
120
peripheral pathway
respond to persuasive arguments on the bass of snap judgements. focus on surface of argument. when not motivated to evaluate. can affect short term decisions. generally use peripheral
121
persuasion techniques
foot in the door. door in the face. lowball. but you are free.
122
foot in the door
making a smaller request before making a larger on
123
door in the face.
make an unreasonably large request before making intended small request
124
low-ball
seller of the product starts by quoting a low sales prices then mentions all of the add on costs after the fact
125
"but you are free"
we convince someone to perform a favor for us by telling them they are not free to do it.
126
who are we more likely to be persuaded by
attractive or famous ppl. when the source has high credibility. similar to use
127
prejudice.
drawing negative conclusions about a person, a group of people or a situation prior to evaluating the evidence
128
stereotypes
a belief positive or negative about characteristics of members of a group that is applied generally to most members of the group. affect how we interpret ambiguous situations.
129
difference between prejudice and discrimination
prejudice is an attitude whereas discrimination is an action
130
in group bias
tendency to favor ppl from within out group rather than those outside the group
131
out group homogeneity
tendency to view all individuals outside our group as highly similar
132
what causes prejudice
thinking categorically. smoke detector principle. social comparison. scapegoat hypothesis. just world hypothesis. conformity to social norms.
133
smoke detector principle
the notion that it's better to be oversensitive and produce many false alarms than be undersenstive and allow one catastrophe
134
social comparison
assessing oneself by determining how one measures up to other people
135
scapegoat hypothesis
the claim that prejudice arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfourtunes
136
just world hypothesis
the assumption that the world is fair and all things happen for a reason
137
implicit prejudice
unfounded negative belief of which we're unaware regarding the characteristics of an out group.
138
explicit prejudice
unfounded negative belief of which we're aware regarding the characteristic of the out group
139
ways to measure implicit prejudice
facial muscles. implicit associations test (IAT)
140
how to reduce prejudice
education. intergroup contact. common group identity. groups should be of equal status. members should dis confirm the others groups negative stereotypes
141
intergroup contact
having members of different groups have direct personal interaction
142
common group identity
a group that is composed of members of various groups. have members of different groups work together
143
facial feedback hypothesis
The idea that one's facial expressions can have an effect on emotional experience. Example: A woman attending a stuffy party forces herself to smile, and finds she feels happier as a result.
144
Primary & Secondary Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers are biological. Food, drink, and pleasure are the principal examples of primary reinforcers. But, most human reinforcers are secondary, or conditioned. Examples include money, grades in schools, and tokens.
145
latent learning
a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned
146
Mirror Neurons
A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting.
147
Temperament
the characteristics and aspects of personality that we are born with.
148
types of temperament
Sanguine, Phlegmatic, Choleric, and Melancholic
149
What is emotion regulation?
the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed.
