Exam 2 Flashcards
point light technique
a computer-based research technique used to investigate what the observer perceives
invariant features
the coordinated movement pattern
cognitive mediation theory
* reason why demonstration works
helps the learner develop an accessible memory representation that can be recalled. This supports the development of good error detection and correction strategies.
dynamic view of modeling
* reason why demonstration works
can skip the stage of cognitive mediation; learner sees the demonstration and automatically, the motor control system is constrained to act accordingly, that is, reproduce the movement
Issue of ATTENTION with verbal instructions
1) People have limited capacity to attend to information; don’t overload them
2) It is NOT useful to direct attention to specific movement components but rather to movement outcomes and regulatory environmental contexts (action effect hypothesis); i.e., external not internal focus
Directing the learner to movement components will hinder learning
3) Overloading people with attention demands can create a negative effect due to directing their attention away from necessary components of the task (Example – ball-catching study where the participants were distracted by searching for the rules they were taught, rather than the ball; this did not encourage a discovery learning situation)
4) If a skill requires both speed and accuracy, concentrate first on accuracy
Verbal cues can be used with
demonstration, during performance, or prompts said out loud while executing the skill, and aid both beginners and skilled practitioners
Verbal cues aid
both beginners and skilled practitioners
If a skill requires both speed and accuracy what chould be focused on first.
accuracy
task-intrinsic feedback
sensory – naturally available while performing a skill
Augmented feedback
Performance related information that is added to task-intrinsic feedback;
Typically comes from a source external to the person performing the skill
Types of augmented feedback
Knowledge of results (KR) is information about the outcome of a skill performance
Knowledge of performance (KP) is information about movement characteristics that leads to the outcome
Knowledge of results (KR)
information about the outcome of a skill performance
**KR is often quantitative (how many, how far, how fast)
Knowledge of performance (KP)
information about movement characteristics that leads to the outcome
***KP tells “the how”
Can use video replay and EMG biofeedback
In terms of skill acquisition, augmented feedback can be
be essential, (2) be not needed at all, (3) enhance, or (4) hinder (due to dependency)
CONTENT OF AUGMENTED FEEDBACK
1) Giving feedback based on error is more useful for skill enhancement than information related to correct action (praise), but the latter is useful for motivation.
2) KP is much more commonly taught and more useful to beginners than KR
3) Quantitative feedback has a numerical value; qualitative feedback is descriptive in nature; indicates quality of performance. In early learning, people pay more attention to qualitative
4) Error size: Performance bandwidths determine a range of acceptable error; feedback only given when the performer goes outside this bandwidth
5) Problems with giving erroneous KR – learner pays attention to it & gets worse!
Verbal KP
must select appropriate features of the performance
Descriptive KP
describes only the error a person has made
Perscriptive KP
describes errors and tells what needs to be done to correct them
Video recordings
beginners need instructor present to point out critical information
Types of KP
Verbal KP: must select appropriate features of the performance
Descriptive describes only the error a person has made, and Prescriptive describes errors and tells what needs to be done to correct them
2) Video recordings – beginners need instructor present to point out critical information
3) Movement kinematics (computer analysis)
4) Biofeedback (EMG recordings of muscle use)
Concurrent feedback
given while person is performing a skill; comes in many forms (visible indicators, sound indicators, computer monitors); can have negative or positive effects
Terminal feedback
provided after the person has completed the skill
KR-delay interval
time between completion of action and giving augmented feedback
Post-KR interval
time between receiving augmented feedback and the next trial
KR trial process
Trial #1 – KR delay interval – augmented feedback – post-KR interval – trial #2
KR delay interval/ Post- KR interval
In these two intervals, it is useful to plan one’s strategy, or estimate your own error; it is not useful to participate or plan other activities
guidance hypothesis
states that it is best NOT to give constant feedback (dependency on feedback)
Traditional view of feedback frequency
More is better
Three techniques to reduce feedback
- performance-based bandwidths,
- self-selected frequency (give feedback when person requests it)
- summary and averaged augmented feedback
Overlearning
practice that continues beyond what is needed to achieve the skill, or get to a certain performance criterion; it has a positive influence on retention
Procedural skills
skills requiring a certain number of steps that must be done in a particular order (e.g., military example of assembling a gun); these skills benefit from overlearning re retention
Overlearning can benefit what skills
- procedural skills
- balance skills
- physical education skills
point of diminishing returns
refers to the point in a practice session for any skill in which one sees detriments to performance with continued practice.
Main difference between massed and distributed practice
the amount of rest between sessions or trials.
blocked practice
same skill over and over
random practice
mix up multiple skills or variations of the skill
also known as contextual interference
Massed practice
fewer practice sessions, each session requiring more/longer practice (less rest)
Ex. Massed = a 4-hour session every day for 3 days (total sessions 3, total hours 12)-
Distributed practice
more sessions, each session is shorter, so need more time overall to get in the same amount of practice (more rest)
Ex. a 1-hour session every other day for 24 days (total sessions 12, total hours 12)
General rule about practice distribution schedules
distributed practice is better regardless of skill (Reasons: fatigue, reduced cognitive effort, memory consolidation)
the issues with the lack of knowledge about massed and distributed practice
the lack of retention and transfer tests in this area.
those using distributed practice can…?
predict their retention scores better
intertrial interval
the rest interval between trials
whether to use mass or distributed practice, the type of skill matters
- For continuous skill, distributed practice is better
- For discrete, massed practice is better
Complexity
refers to the number of components and the amount of information-processing demands in a skill
Organization
refers to the relationship among the component parts of a skill, e.g. spatial and temporal relationships
natural unit
refers to component parts within a skill that are interdependent and should be practiced as a group together, as a part of the whole skill. Note that if ALL of the components of a skill are interdependent, it should be practiced as a whole.
Fractionization
involve multiple limbs, in which each arm or leg is practiced separately before practicing all of the limbs together; practice the more difficult or complex one first a part-task training method
Example: the drummer practicing one hand, the other hand, the foot separately
Segmentation (or progressive-part strategy)
part-task training method in which the task is divided into sections or parts (A, B, C, etc.); start by practicing one part, then the next, then put the two together, then practice the third, and so on: practice A, then practice B, then practice A + B, then practice C, then practice A + B + C, and so on.
Example: Balance beam routine consisting of (A) a handstand into (B) a walkover into (C) a step turn into (D) a running dismount.
- Note that the runs into the dismount are a natural unit and should not be practiced separately
Simplification
a part-task training method involving reducing the difficulty of parts or features of the skill
Example: A dive with a twist and 2 flips
Practice the plain dive, then add the twist, then do the flips without the twist, then put it all together
Mental practice
is the cognitive (mental) rehearsal of a skill in the absence of movement. It can also use visual or kinesthetic imagery.
two roles of mental practice
acquisition of skills and performance preparation
mental practice benefits
benefits to both power and speed
Elite athletes use mental practice and the primary use for elite athletes to use mental imagery is?
motivation
Why imagery works
The neuromuscular hypothesis - EMG activity in nonworking muscles
The brain activity hypothesis - PET scans and MRI show brain region activity
The cognitive hypothesis – answers questions about “what to do” to achieve the task
The neuromuscular hypothesis
EMG activity in nonworking muscles
The brain activity hypothesis
PET scans and MRI show brain region activity
The cognitive hypothesis
answers questions about “what to do” to achieve the task
Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ)
a test of kinesthetic and visual imagery ability, an individual-difference characteristic or variable having to do with being able to imagine an action vividly and with control
