Exam 1 Flashcards
motor skills / actions
Motor skills require body, head, and/or limb movement to achieve its goal
movements
specific limbs or combination of limbs that are components of skills / actions)
One dimension classification systems for movements
- Size of Primary Musculature Required
- Gross
- Fine
- Size of Primary Musculature Required
-
* Specificity of where the motor skill begins and end
- Discrete motor skills - specified beginning and end points, usually require a simple movement
e. g. flipping a light switch
- Continuous motor skills - arbitrary beginning and end points; usually involve repetitive movements
e. g. steering a car - stability of enviorment
- Closed motor skills – – involve a stationary supporting surface, object, and/or other people; performer determines when to begin the action
e. g. picking up a cup while seated at a table
- Open motor skill- – involve supporting surface, object, and/or other people in motion; environment features determines when to begin the action
e. g. catching a thrown ball
Open motor skill
– involve supporting surface, object, and/or other people in motion; environment features determines when to begin the action
e.g. catching a thrown ball
Closed motor skills
– involve a stationary supporting surface, object, and/or other people; performer determines when to begin the action
e.g. picking up a cup while seated at a table
Discrete motor skills
specified beginning and end points, usually require a simple movement
e.g. flipping a light switch
Continuous motor skills
arbitrary beginning and end points; usually involve repetitive movements
Gross motor skills
- require the use of large musculature to achieve the goal of the skills
e. g. walking, jumping
Fine motor skills
require control of small muscles to achieve the goal of the skill
e.g. skills involving hand/eye coordination
Taxonomy
A classification system organized according to relationships among the component characteristics of what is being classified
Gentile Taxonomy classifications
- Environmental context
2. Function of the action
Enviormetal context characterisitics
***Regulatory conditions
Characteristics of environment that control the movement characteristics of an action
**Intertrial variability
Whether the regulatory conditions are the same or different from one performance attempt to another
Function of the action
Two characteristics
1) Body orientation: whether or not the body stays in the same location (stability) or changes location (passive- on the bus – or active – walking)
2) Object manipulation: maintaining or changing the position of an object
Performance
Execution of a skill at a specific time and in a specific location
**Observable behavior
Learning
Not directly observable
Must be inferred from observable behavior
Definition: A change in the capability to perform a skill that must be inferred from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience
performance variables
factors that affect performance but not learning, such as stress, fatigue, etc.)
performance tes
assesses how one does in a particular session at a given time
five characteristics of skill learning
Improvement (over time)
Consistency (less standard deviation)
Stability (resistant to internal – e.g., stress - and external – e.g., weather perturbation)
Persistence (retention – lasts over increasing periods of time)
Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)
Improvement
ovrtime
consistency
less standard deviation
Stability
resistant to internal – e.g., stress - and external – e.g., weather perturbation)
Persistence
(retention – lasts over increasing periods of time)
Adaptability
Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)
Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)
Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)
Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)
Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)
Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)
Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)
(contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)
Performance curves
- ** x-axis (time units or trials) and y-axis (units of performance measurement)***
- Linear
- Neatively accelerated
- Positively accelerated
- Ogive or S- shaped
Linear
Proportional increases over trials or time
Negatively accelerated
Early improvement but slows during latter practice
Positively accelerated
Slight improvement early but substantial improvement during later practice
Ogive or S-shaped
compination of linear, negative, positive curve
four main methods of assessing learning
Observing practice performance (performance curves)
- Retention
- Transfer tests
- Coordination dynamics
Retention test
Tests of a practiced skill that a learner performs following an interval of time after practice has ceased
Transfer tests
adaptability of performance changes, either in novel (different) contexts or novel skill variations
Performing the practiced skill in a context or situation different from practice, e.g.:
Availability of augmented feedback
Physical environment
Personal characteristics
Coordination dynamics
transitions in the dynamics of movement coordination
performance plateau
steady state followed by improvement again)
Practice Performance May Misrepresent Learning
- Practice may involve a performance variable that artificially inflates or depresses performance
- Practice may involve performance plateaus
Fitts and Posner Three-Stage Model
Cognitive : Beginner focuses on solving cognitively-oriented problems
Associative: Person has learned to associate cues from the environment with required movements; works to refine performance to be more consistent
Autonomous: Final stage where performance of the skill is “automatic” (in terms of attention demanded)
Gentile’s Two-Stage Model
Initial stage
Later Stage
Intial stage of Gentiles two stage model
- Movement coordination pattern to enable some degree of success achieving action goal
- Learn to discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions in environmental context
Later Stage of Gentile Two stage model
- Adapting movement pattern acquired in Initial stage to demands of any performance situation
2 Increase consistency of action goal achievement - Perform with an economy of effort
two environmental contexts the beginner must learn to distinguish
refer to characteristics of the performance environment that do or do NOT influence the movement required to do the action
Fixation
deals with learning closed skills; learner refines movement patterns so they can produce them correctly, consistently, efficiently
diversification
deals with learning open skills; learner acquires capability to modify movement patterns according to environmental context
CHANGES ACROSS STAGES OF LEARNING
1) Changes in the RATE of improvement in various stages of learning Know the power law of practice 2) Changes in movement coordination and degrees of freedom 3) Changes in altering old patterns 4) Changes in muscle use 5) Changes in energy cost 6) Changes in visual selectivity 7) Changes in conscious attention 8) Changes in error detection 9) Changes in brain activity
freezing degrees of freedom
the person (beginner) holds some joints rigid while performing the skill
one aspect or characteristic that does NOT change across stages
Sensory Feedback
What defines an expert?
Time of practice needed – 10 years minimum
Ways of organizing information – more organized concepts and can inter-relate concepts
Time of practice needed – 10 years minimum
Ways of organizing information – more organized concepts and can inter-relate concepts
Time of practice needed – 10 years minimum
Ways of organizing information – more organized concepts and can inter-relate concepts
Time of practice needed – 10 years minimum
Ways of organizing information – more organized concepts and can inter-relate concepts
Time of practice needed – 10 years minimum
Ways of organizing information – more organized concepts and can inter-relate concepts
transfer
– positive (beneficial effect of previous experience on learning), negative (negative effect of previous experience on learning), and zero (no effect)
negative transfer
Considered rare and temporary in motor skill learning
Occurs when new skill or context involves
the two theories of why transfer works
1) Similarity of skill and content components
(called the identical elements theory)
2) Similarity of processing requirements
(called the transfer-appropriate-processing theory)
Negative effects can be overcome with practice
Important for the practitioner to be aware that it could cause discouragement early in practice
Why does negative transfer occur
Memory representation or code that is inappropriate for the new skill
Cognitive confusion
bilateral transfer
Transfer of learning that involves the positive influence of previous experience performing a skill with one limb on learning or performing the same skill with a different limb
Why Do Negative Transfer Effects Occur
- Motor control system required to perform in non-preferred manner for the environmental context
- Cognitive confusion
Asymmetric transfer
Bilateral transfer in which there is a greater amount of transfer from one limb than from the other
Symmetric transfer
Bilateral transfer in which the amount of transfer is similar from one limb to the other, regardless of which was used first
cognitive reason to why biilateral transfer works
– knowing what to do to achieve the goal, which is relevant regardless of which limb is doing the action
two theories of why bilateral transfer works
1) Cognitive – knowing what to do to achieve the goal, which is relevant regardless of which limb is doing the action
2) Motor:
(a) GMP (generalized motor program – muscles as parameter, not invariant) plus dynamic pattern theory – coordination dynamics
(b) transfer in the brain, demonstrated by EMG activity in non-active limbs
