Exam 2 Flashcards
Emotions - what purpose do they serve?
Evolutionary functions
- innate
- universal
- conserved
Evidence for evolutionary basis of emotions
- emerge early w/o direct reinforcements
- avoidance mechanisms (may be adaptive)
- similarities w/nonhuman animals
What is the discrete emotions theory?
The theory that humans experience a small number of distinct emotions that are rooted in their biology
What supports the theory that emotions are universal?
Ekman’s research with primary emotions
How many primary emotions are there? What are they? What makes them a primary emotion?
Seven basic emotions:
- happiness
- disgust
- sadness
- fear
- surprise
- contempt
- anger
—primary bc easier to distinguish from facial expressions
What are three aspects of the Discrete emotions theory?
Emotions are:
- universal
- physiological responses
- display rules
What are display rules in terms of emotions? Give an example
Humans have all of the primary emotions, but may not express all of them due to cultural differences
- does not influence the emotion itself, but rather the expression of it
- ie: societal demands in western culture with boys crying
How do cognitive theories of emotion consider emotion?
They consider emotion to be a product of thinking
What are the three cognitive theories of emotion?
- James-Lange
- Cannon-Bard
- Two Factor
What is the James-Lange theory? Give an example with a spider
Emotions are a result from interpretation of out bodily reactions to stimuli
-ie: person sees spider -> begins to shake -> interprets shaking as fear
What is the Cannon-Bard theory? What organ is supposedly responsible for this? Give an example with a spider
Emotion-provoking events lead simultaneously to an emotion and to bodily reactions
- –believed to be done through the Thalamus
- ie: person sees spider -> begins to shake AND experiences fear at same time
What is the Two-factor theory? Give an example with a spider
Emotions are produced by an undifferentiated state of aroused along w/an attribution of that arousal
-ie: person sees spider -> undiff. state of arousal (fear, happiness, etc.) -> attributes arousal to spider -> experiences fear
How does arousal and attraction correlate to each other? Give an example
Any type of arousal is more likely to lead to more attraction
- ie: attractive female research assistant on solid bridge and wobbly bridge talking to passerbys
- –> those approached on wobbly bridge was found more likely to call back
What is an example of an unconscious influence? What discovery did it lead to?
Subliminal presentation of emotional stimuli
-Mere exposure effect
Mere exposure effect - what is it?
Repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably toward it
What are some examples of stimuli that are applicable to the mere exposure effect?
- Faces
- Shapes
- Nonsense syllables
- Chinese characters
What is one test used to detect lying? What does it rely on?
Polygraph test
-relies on the Pinocchio response
What is the Pinocchio response?
a perfect (supposedly) physiological or behavioral indicator of lying
What are the physiological signals that a polygraph measures? What do these signals traditionally reflect?
Reflect anxiety
- perspiration
- blood pressure
- heart rate
What type of questions are asked in a controlled questions test?
yes/no questions
- relevant
- control
- irrelevant
What do irrelevant questions do? Give an example
Establish a baseline (individual’s typical level of arousal)
-ie: Is your name Sam?
What are characteristics of control questions?
Broader in scope and may involve past
What are the three possible results of a polygraph test?
- Not deceptive
- Inconclusive
- Deception detected
What does a test result of “not deceptive” mean, physiologically?
higher level of response for control questions
What does a test result of “inconclusive” mean, physiologically?
same level of response for control and relevant questions
What does a test result of “deception detected” mean, physiologically?
higher level of response for relevant questions
What are the two types of tests that can be administered with a polygraph?
- The controlled question test
- The guilty knowledge test
What is “wrong” with the controlled questions test? Why is this significant?
- False positives possible
- –not admissible in most US courts
- False negatives possible
- –countermeasures
What does a false positive mean in a polygraph test?
Individuals who are truthful but read as lying
What does a false negative mean in a polygraph test?
Individuals who are lying but read as truthful
Are polygraphs admissible in most US courts? Why?
No - not specific towards lying, but to arousal (i.e. nervousness)
What does the Guilty Knowledge Test test for? How?
Recognition of concealed knowledge
-if guilty, should show a heightened physiological response to the correct multiple choice answer when read out loud
How accurate is the Guilty Knowledge Test? I.e. how many false positives and how many false negatives? Why?
- Low false positive rate
- High false negative rate
- –maybe forgot, didn’t notice, or has same responses for entirety of question
Happiness - define
People’s sense of how satisfied they are with life
-“subjective well being”
How do we measure happiness?
Self-report scale
What do we think is related to happiness, but isn’t? Why?
- Money
- –rises, then plateau’s around ~75k
- Youth
- –may be due to positivity effect
- Weather
What is the positivity effect?
Tend to remember pos. things over neg. things
What are some of the correlates with happiness?
- Personal relationships
- Longevity
- Flow
How are personal relationships a correlate to happiness?
Positive social life
How is longevity a correlate to happiness?
Nun study
- followed nuns as they aged -> all wrote autobiography when younger
- –researchers looked at # of positivity in book and found a correlation btw. the # and age of death
What is Flow?
A state of optimal experience in which one engages in activities simply for the sake of the activity itself
What are some characteristics of someone experiencing flow?
- Extreme concentration
- –Lack of attention to time
- Loss of self-consciousness
- Provides goals/feedback
Are we good at predicting our/others’ happiness? Why?
Nope
- Durability bias
- Hedonic treadmill
Affective forecasting - define
Prediction of one’s emotional state in the future
Durability bias - define
Tend to believe good/bad moods will last longer than they do
Hedonic treadmill - define
The idea that our moods tend to adapt to external circumstances
Motivation - define
Psychological drives that propel us in a specific direction
What is the Drive reduction theory? Give examples.
Drives that motivate us in ways that minimize aversive states
-ie: thirst, hunger, sexual tension
According to the Drive reduction theory, what are we motivated to maintain?
Homeostasis
What does the strength of the drives, according to the drive reduction theory, depend on? What supports this?
Arousal
-Yerkes-Dodson Law
What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
Optimal level of performance btw. low and high arousal for both complex and simple tasks
What are two different theories under the umbrella of motivation?
- Drive reduction theory
- Incentive theories
What are Incentive theories? Name three
Motivated by positive goals
- Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
- Primary vs secondary needs
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation - define it
Internal vs external goals
Primary vs secondary needs - define it and give examples
Primary: biological necessities
-huger, thirst
Secondary: psychological desires
-independence, affiliation, etc.
What is necessary within Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
You have to satisfy the base before moving up
What are the levels within Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Physiological needs -> safety needs -> belonging needs -> esteem needs -> self actualization
What is an example of a physiological need?
Food, water
What is an example of a belonging need?
Affection
What is an example of an esteem need?
Feeling adequate, competent, etc.
What does it mean to accomplish self-actualization?
Self-fulfillment
Can you skip around in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Give an example
It is possible to skip around, though not common
-Studying so hard for an exam that you forgot to eat
Which level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is fundamental? What does that mean?
Physiological needs are fundamental
-they have to be satisfied (generally) before one can focus on other goals
What are the three major principles of interpersonal attraction?
- Proximity
- Similarity
- Reciprocity
How does proximity relate to interpersonal attraction?
Mere exposure effect
What is another term for proximity?
Propinquity
How does similarity relate to interpersonal attraction?
- minimizes conflict
- points of connection (mutual understanding)
- feeling of acceptance
- validation of views (feel better about self)
Similarity - define it
extent to which we have things in common w/others
What is Reciprocity?
The rule of give and take
What role, within attraction, does physical attractiveness play during first dates?
Best indicator for whether they would date again
What do both Men and Women value when it comes to attraction, according to self reports?
Intelligence, dependability, kindness
What do Men value when it comes to attraction, according to self reports?
- Initial emphasis on physical characteristics
- Prefers youth (looks younger than they are)
What do Women value when it comes to attraction, according to self reports?
- Financial resources
- Prefers those who look older than they are
What are two areas in which we see sex differences in terms of attraction?
- Evolutionary models
- Social role theory
What are the sex differences in terms of attraction within evolutionary models?
- Men: look for cues of health and fertility bc they produce lots of sperm
- Women: more choosy bc they only produce one egg per month - want to maximize the chances that the child will be cared for
What are the sex differences in terms of attraction with the social role theory?
Men: bc don’t bare children, more opportunity to pursue higher position jobs
—women cannot bc they bare kids (time off, etc.)
As gender roles tend to change, so do preferences
-ie: in past, men looked bigger bc of role of the hunter/gatherer
What are two main factors when it comes to looking at attraction?
- Sex differences
- Averageness
How does averageness affect attraction? Why?
Humans tend to rate “averaged photos” as more attractive
- Mere exposure effect
- Possible evolutionary causes
What is the main theory revolving around love?
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
What are the three main pillars of Sternberg’s triangular theory of love?
- Intimacy
- Passion
- Commitment
What is considered to be passionate love?
- Powerful longing
- Delirious happiness
What is considered to be compassionate love?
- Deep friendship
- Sense of fondness
How are passionate love and compassionate love related to each other?
They are seen as independent
-As time progresses, passionate -> compassionate
What is intimacy, according to Sternberg?
Feeling really close to another person
What is passion, according to Sternberg?
Infatuation
What is commitment, according to Sternberg?
Empty love
-Wants to stay with person
What love is formed with passion and intimacy?
Romantic
What love is formed with intimacy and commitment?
Companionate
What love is formed with passion and commitment?
Fatuous
What love is formed with passion, intimacy, and commitment?
Consummate
What is stress?
A response that strains our ability to cope effectively
What three stages do we go through as we confront a stressor, according to the general adaptation syndrome?
- Alarm
- Resistance
- Exhaustion
What is the General Adaptation Syndrome? How many stages?
The predictable way the body responds to stress
-3
What occurs during the alarm stage of the general adaptation syndrome? List some examples of physiological responses
Flight or fight response triggered
Physiological responses (some):
- adrenaline
- muscles tense
- pupils dilate
- heart rate/breathing increases
- blood pressure increases
- chills/sweating
- digestion may slow
What occurs during the resistance stage of the general adaptation syndrome?
Adapt to stressor or find ways to cope
IF stressor continues and unable to cope, may go into stage 3 (exhaustion)
What occurs during the exhaustion stage of the general adaptation syndrome?
Resistance breaks down
-unable to handle new stressors
What is one analogy for stress?
Stress as a transaction -> interaction btw potentially stressful life events and how people interpret and cope with them
- Primary appraisal: is the event harmful?
- Secondary appraisal: how well can I cope?
What are the different types of coping?
- Problem focused coping
- Emotion focused coping
What is problem focused coping?
Tackles problem/challenge head on
What is emotion focused coping?
Try to engage in positive way
-attempts to minimize negative emotions around that event
What are the different control techniques of coping?
- Behavioral
- Cognitive
- Informational
- Decisional
- Emotional
Hardiness is a set of attitudes marked by…?
- A sense of control
- Commitment
- Courage and motivation
What is hardiness associated with?
Health
What are three ways of coping?
- Hardiness
- Optimism
- Rumination
What is Optimism associated with?
Associated with:
- productivity
- health outcomes (i.e. better immune response)
What is Rumination?
When you focus on how bad you feel and endlessly analyze the causes and consequences of your problems
How is Rumination associated with coping? Any gender differences?
Those who ruminate usually struggle to find solutions to problems
-Women tend to ruminate more than men
What is a Confederate?
A person who participates in the study but is working for the researcher
What is social psychology?
The study of how people influence others’ behavior, beliefs, and attitudes
What is the definition of attribution?
The process of assigning causes to behavior
What is the Fundamental Attribution Error?
The tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional influences on other people’s behavior (rather than, i.e., situational causes)
—-Overestimate internal causes rather than external causes (broken bathroom stall lock example)
What are three factors of social influence?
- Conformity
- Deindividuation
- Obedience
What is the definition of conformity?
The tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure
What was one study that was done that tested conformity? Who was the main researcher? What was he interested in?
Asch Study
-Solomon Asch: interested in why people conform
What was the Asch study?
- Participants were called in in small groups (most were confederate’s)
- In 12/18 trials, confederates gave the wrong answer
- 75% of participants went along w/wrong answer at least once
- –size of group matters, to an extent
What is the definition of deindividuation?
The tendency of people to engage in uncharacteristic behavior when they are stripped of their usual identities
What was one study that was done that tested deindividuation? Who was the main researcher?
Standford Prison Study
-Philip Zimbardo
What was the Stanford Prison study?
- Participants (all male) were volunteers for a study revolving “prison life” and were randomly assigned as prisoner or guard
- Guards were given no specific instructions on how to be guards…just told to “maintain order”
- By the end of the 2 weeks, participants had fully taken on the assigned role
- –study had to be ended after 6 days due to harsh conditions
What is the definition of obedience?
Adherence to instructions from those of higher authority
What was one study that was done that tested obedience? Who was the main researcher? What was he interested in?
Milgrim experiments
-Stanely Milgrim: interested in how situational factors influence obedience
What was the Milgrim experiment?
A study of “memory”
- participant (“teacher”) in one room and confederate (“learner”) in another
- “teacher” told to administer increasing voltage of shocks when “learner” gets a wrong answer
- “confederate” starts to give wrong answers early on and responds to “shocks” via grunting, “ouch”, etc.
- Results: all participants administered at least some shocks
- –62% went up to highest voltage
What is the definition of aggression?
Behavior intended to harm others, physically or verbally
Why might someone display aggression?
- Situational factors
- Dispositional factors
What are some situational factors that may elicit aggression?
- Interpersonal provokation
- Frustration
- Arousal
- Alcohol and other drugs
- Temperature
What are some dispositional factors that may elicit aggression?
- Personality traits
- Sex differences
- Cultural differences
What is the definition of relational aggression?
Harming other people by harming their relationships
-ie: gossip, rumors, etc.
What are the sex differences within dispositional factors that may elicit aggression?
Males tend to portray more physical aggression while some believe that females display more relational aggression
What is the definition of attitude?
A belief that includes an emotional component
-“How do you feel about…?”
Do attitudes predict behavior?
Yes, but only moderately - w/some exceptions
What is the definition of cognitive dissonance?
Unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from 2 conflicting thoughts or beliefs
Cognitive Dissonance Theory - give an example of a scenario
Look at notes for answer
Attitude change study -> what happened? Why?
- Boring manual tasks
- Asked to tell new participant how great it was: gets $1 or $20
Those who got $1:
- reported much more enjoyment
- reported that would participate again more than those who got $20
-$1 folks had dissonance and had to resolve it, $20 peeps did not
What study has been done that displays the cognitive dissonance theory?
Attitude change study by Festinger and Carlsmith
What is social support?
Relationships with people and groups that con provide us with emotional comfort and personal and financial resources
Where can you find social support?
- Friends and family
- A group you are a part of
What was a study that studied social support? What did they do? What were the findings?
Longitudinal test that measured the probability of dying - were social connections related to rates of dying?
-Less social support = higher mortality rates
What is behavioral control?
The ability to do something to reduce the impact of a stressful situation or prevent its recurrence
What are 6 ways to cope with stress?
- Social support
- Behavioral control
- Cognitive control
- Decisional control
- Informational control
- Emotional control
What is an example of behavioral control?
Problem-focused coping
-Instead of avoidance or giving up, talk to coach
What is cognitive control?
The ability to think differently about negative emotions that arise in response to stress providing events
What is an example of cognitive control?
Emotion-focused coping
-Putting a positive on a situation
What was one study that was done that looked at cognitive control?
Stimulated hijacking and captivity
- problem focused coping condition vs emotion focused coping condition
- –emotion focused coping group did better
What is Decisional control?
The ability to choose among alternative courses of action
-If you are choosing among different options, feeling more in control
What is Informational control?
The ability to acquire info about a stressful event
-“Tell me exactly what’s going to happen”
What is Emotional control?
The ability to suppress and express emotions
-Being able to suppress/express as needed
What is one study that looked at Emotional control as a method of coping?
Subjects asked to write in diary for 4 days
- Experimental: write about trauma…get deep
- Control: write about superficial things
- –Blood was drawn after 6 weeks, with amount of visits to student health recorded
- > Failing to confront trauma is leads to stress
- –Experiment: less visits to student health
- –Control: visits to student health went up
What is social loafing? Why?
A phenomenon whereby individuals become less productive in groups
-Diffusion of responsibility
What is altruism?
Helping others for unselfish reasons
What is bystander nonintervention?
When people see a victim in need but fail to help them
Why does bystander nonintervention happen?
- Pluralistic ignorance
- Diffusion of responsibility
What is pluralistic ignorance?
A situation in which a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but incorrectly assume that most others accept it, and therefore go along with it
-error of assuming that no one in a group perceives things as we do
What is the definition of diffusion of responsibility?
Reduction in feelings of personal responsibility in the presence of others
When are we more likely to practice bystander intervention? What evidence supports this?
Across 3 experiments involving bystander intervention, the % of people helping when in groups was markedly lower than the % of people helping when alone
What is the enlightenment effect?
Learning about psychological research can change real-world behavior for the better
What may influence our engagement in altruism?
- empathetic
- Enlightenment effect
- Gender differences? Some say men are more likely to help than women
What is the definition of self monitoring?
Personality train that assesses the extent to which people’s behavior reflects their true feelings and attitudes
What is the definition of emotion?
Mental state or feeling associated with our evaluation of our experiences
What are cognitive theories of emotion?
Theories that emotions are products of thinking
What is the somatic marker theory?
Theory proposing that we use our “gut reactions” to help us determine how we should act
What is the facial feedback hypothesis?
Theory that blood vessels in the face feed back temperature info in the brain, altering our experience of emotions
What is nonverbal leakage?
Unconscious spillover of emotions into nonverbal behavior
What is the definition of proxemics?
Study of personal space
What is the integrity test?
Questionnaire that presumably assesses workers’ tendency to steal or cheat
What is the broaden and build theory?
The theory that happiness predisposes us to think more openly
What is the definition of self-esteem?
Evaluation of our worth
What are positive illusions?
Tendencies to perceive ourselves more favorably than others do
What is positive psychology?
A discipline that has sought to emphasize human strength
What is defensive pessimism?
The strategy of anticipating failure and compensating for this expectation by mentally over-preparing for negative outcomes
What is the glucostatic theory?
The theory that when our blood glucose levels drop, hunger creates a drive to eat to restore the proper level of glucose
What is leptin?
A hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used
What is a set point?
A value that establishes a range of body and muscle mass we tend to maintain
What is the internal-external theory?
The theory holding that obese people are motivated to eat more by external cues than internal ones
What is bulimia nervosa?
An eating disorder associated with a pattern of bingeing and purging in an effort to lose or maintain weight
What is anorexia nervosa?
An eating disorder associated with excessive weight loss and the irrational perception that one is overweight
What are the 4 phases within a sexual response?
- Excitement phase
- Plateau phase
- Orgasm (climax) phase
- Resolution phase
What is the excitement phase of a sexual response characterized with?
The experiencing of sexual pleasure and noticing of physiological changes associated with it
What is the plateau phase of a sexual response?
A phase in which sexual tension builds
What is the orgasm (climax) phase of a sexual response?
Marked by involuntary rhythmic contractions in the muscles of genitals in both men and women
What is the resolution phase of a sexual response?
The phase following an orgasm in which people report relaxation and a sense of well-being
What is corticosteroid?
A stress hormone that activates the body and prepares us to respond to stressful circumstances
What is a primary appraisal?
Initial decision regarding whether an event in harmful
What is a secondary appraisal?
Perceptions regarding our ability to cope with an event that follows primary appraisal
What is a hassle?
A minor annoyance or nuiance that strains our ability to cope
What is the tend and befriend reaction?
A reaction that mobilizes people to nurture (tend) or seek social support (befriend) under stress
What is psychoneuroimmunology?
The study of the relationship between the immune system and central nervous system
What is the definition of psychophysiological?
Illnesses such as asthma and ulcers in which emotions and stress contribute to, maintain, or aggravate the physical condition
What is the biopsychosocial perspective?
The view that an illness or a medical condition is the product of the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors
What is the Type A personality?
Personality type that describes people who are competitive, driven, hostile, and ambitious
What is proactive coping?
Anticipation of problems and stressful situations that promotes effective coping
What is aerobic exercise?
Exercise that promotes the use of oxygen in the body
What is alternative medicine?
Health care practices and products used in place of conventional medicine
What is complementary medicine?
Health care practices and products used together with conventional medicine
What is homeopathic medicine?
Remedies that feature a small does of an illness-inducing substance to activate the body’s own natural defenses
What is biofeedback?
Feedback by a device that provides almost an immediate output of a biological function, such as heart rate or skin temp
What is meditation?
A variety of practices that train attention and awareness
What is the social comparison theory?
The theory that we seek to evaluate our abilities and beliefs by comparing them with those of others
What is mass hysteria?
Outbreak of irrational behavior that is spread by social contagion
What is social facilitation?
Enhancement of performance brought about by the presence of others
What is the definition of conformity?
The tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure
What is groupthink?
emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking
What is a cult?
A group of individuals who exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion to a single cause
What is the inoculation effect?
An approach to convincing people to change their minds about something by first introducing reasons why the perspective might be correct and then debunking them
What is the definition of social loafing
a phenomenon whereby individuals become less productive in groups
