exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Altered states of consciousness
A
Mental states other than ordinary walking consciousness, found during sleep, dreaming, psychoactive drug use, hypnosis, and so on.
2
Q
Controlled process:
A
require focus, maximum attention. (studying for an exam. Learning to drive.)
3
Q
Automatic processes
A
require minimal attention. (walking to class while on the phone. Listening and daydreaming)
4
Q
Subconscious
A
below conscious awareness. (subliminal perception, sleeping, dreaming)
5
Q
No awareness:
A
biology based lowest level of awareness (head injuries, anesthesia, coma) reportedly consisting of unacceptable thoughts and feelings too painful to be admitted to consciousness.
6
Q
Circadian rhythms:
A
biological changes that occur on a 24-hour cycle most often set by light. “internal clock” some rhythms are on a 24-hour clock others aren’t (menstrual cycle, digestive cycle)
• Light is a determining factor in how long someone can stay awake
• The hypothalamus regulated the basic functions that include sleep& hunger which talks to the pituitary gland and notifies every other system to regulate functions throughout the day
• Takes about 3 days to force yourself to re adjust to the time difference
7
Q
Circadian rhythm:
A
Cycle of body rhythms that occur over a 24-hour period
• “circa” – about
• “diem” – day
8
Q
Sleep-Wake cycle is controlled by the hypothalamus
A
- Suprachiasmatic nucleus
- Hypothalamic structure that is light sensitive
- Signals to pineal gland to release melatonin
9
Q
Disrupted Circadian Rhythms
A
Shift Work and Rotating Shift Schedules lead to decreased concentration and productivity—and increased accidents.
• For most humans that is working a graveyard while the rest of us are awake during the day and they are awake during the night.
• Weekend shift sleep schedule, it’s a constant flip flop
Solution: Schedule employees so that their work schedules go from day to evening to nights by weeks (8-4, 4-12, 12-8)
10
Q
Sleep deprivation
A
- mood alterations
- decreased self-esteem,
- reduced concentration and motivation,
- increased irritability,
- lapses in attention,
- reduced motor skills,
- increased cortisol levels (sign of stress)
11
Q
After depravation, more time is spent in Slow wave sleep (NREM)
A
• Prolonged insomnia can be fatal: In rats, it has caused death usually due to opportunistic infections, associated to a weakened immune system
In Humans, there is a condition called Fatal Familial Insomnia, inherited disorder in which humans sleep normally at the beginning of their life, but in midlife stop sleeping and die about 7 to 24 months later. Show evidence of degeneration in the thalamus
12
Q
A typical night’s sleep consists of …
A
4 to 5 90-110 minute cycle. There are 4 different stages of sleep and each stage produces characteristic (different) wave patterns.
13
Q
How do we study sleep?
A
Using EGG (electroencephalography) an apparatus How do we study sleep? that detects and records brain activity. On average, we sleep roughly one third of your life
14
Q
N-REM sleep (non-rapid eye movement)
A
Includes Stages 1 through 3:
• Stage 1 (sleep onset)
• Stage 2 (light sleep): you spend about half the night in this stage. You can be awakened relatively easily from either of these stages of sleep
• Stage 3 /4 (deep sleep): It is hard to awaken during Stages 3 & 4
15
Q
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
A
In REM sleep the eyes dart about under the eyelids, the brain pattern of the sleeper is like the waking state and the person is often dreaming.
• Your motor cortex in the brain is active, but your brainstem blocks its messages, leaving your muscles relaxed, so much so that you are essentially paralyzed.
• REM is sometimes called Paradoxical sleep because the body is internally aroused but externally calm.
Dreams occur during all stages of sleep. However most vivid dreams occur during REM sleep
*Night terrors, sleepwalking and talking occur in N-REM sleep (Non-rapid-eye movement)
16
Q
REM sleep may play an important role in learning and memory
A
it is not a necessity but it can help get the brain functioning even while your asleep.
17
Q
N-REM sleep is important to our biological functioning.
A
More time is spent here particularly if you are sleep deprived
18
Q
Evolutionary/Circadian Theory
A
• Sleep evolved to conserve energy and as a protection from predators; keep quiet/still during the time their most dangerous predators are active
19
Q
Repair/Restoration Theory
A
• Sleep serves a recuperative function, allowing organisms to repair or replenish key factors
20
Q
Psychoanalytic: preliminary wish fulfillment (Freud theory)
A
- Manifest Content the surface story of the dream
- Latent Content the unconscious hidden meaning
- Evidence: little to no scientific support
21
Q
Biological: Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
A
• Random brain activity. Your personality, motivations, memories, and experiences guide the construction of dream
22
Q
Cognitive:
A
- Information Processing: Dreams allow us to process, assimilate and update information in our brain
- Evidence: REM increases after stress and new learning
23
Q
Sleep disorders:
A
• Dyssomnias problems in the amount, timing and quality of sleep
24
Q
Insomnia
A
persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep or waking up too early
• affects about 10% of population. A recurrent problem falling and staying asleep.
25
Sleep apnea
repeated interruption of breathing while asleep, causing loud snoring or poor-quality sleep.
* can destroy neurons in the brain associated with learning and memory
* can lead to high blood pressure, stroke, heart attack
26
Narcolepsy
sudden, irresistible onsets of sleep during waking hours, characterized by sudden sleep attacks while standing, talking or even driving.
• occurs in 1 in 2000 people, runs in families and involves a sudden and irresistible onset of sleep and loss of muscle tone (cataplexy) during normal waking hours.
27
Parasomnias are abnormal disturbances occurring during sleep:
* Nightmares are bad dreams generally occurring during REM sleep, which significantly disrupts sleep
* Night terrors are abrupt awakenings with feeling of panic that occur during N-REM, which significantly disrupt sleep
28
Nightmares (REM Sleep)
* Nightmares occur during REM Sleep and are generally shorter than most dreams, partly because the content of nightmares is terrifying often causing the dreamer to awaken
* Nightmares usually occur in the middle of the night or early morning, when REM sleep and dreaming are more common
* They are not common in children under 5, more common in young children (25% experiencing a nightmare at least once per week), most common in adolescents, and less common in adults (dropping in frequency about one-third from age 25 to 55).
* Fearfulness in waking life is correlated with the incidence of nightmares.
* Nightmares are also associated with the use of medication, primarily those medications/drugs that affect neurotransmitter levels of the central nervous system, such as antidepressants, narcotics or barbiturates.
29
Night Terrors (N-Rem sleep disorder)
* Night Terrors typically occurs in children aged 3 to 12 years
* Night terrors are characterized by frequent recurrent episodes of intense crying and fear during sleep, with difficulty arousing the child. Although the child seems to be awake, the child does not seem to be aware of the parents' presence and usually does not talk. The child may thrash around in bed and does not respond to comforting by the parents.
* Night Terrors occur usually in the transition from Stage 3 to Stage 4
30
Somnambulism
Sitting walking or performing complex behavior while asleep
31
Night terrors
Extreme fear agitation screaming while asleep
32
Restless leg syndrome
uncomfortable sensations in legs causing movement and loss of sleep
33
Nocturnal leg cramps
painful cramps in calf or foot muscles
34
Hypersomnia
excessive daytime sleepiness
35
Circadian rhythm disorders
disturbances of the sleep wake cycle such as jet lag and shift work
36
enuresis
urinating while asleep in bed
37
Language
form of communication using sounds and symbols combines according to specified rules.
38
Phoneme
smallest unit of speech or sound)
39
Morpheme
smallest meaningful unit of language)
40
Grammar
rules specifying how phonemes, morphemes, words, and phrases should be combined to express thoughts)
41
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
Thought processes and concepts are controlled by language
42
Cognitive universalism.
concepts are universal and influence the development of language
43
Developmental psychology
* Scientific study of the changes in people
| * Covers aging from conception until death
44
Longitudinal design
* Participant or group of participants is studied over time
| * Probs: time, money, generalizability
45
Cross-sectional design
* Different age groups of participants are studied at one point in time
* Probs: cohort effect
46
Cross-sequential design
* Participants are first studied by cross-sectional design
| * Followed and assessed for a period up to six years
47
Nature:
influence of inherited characteristics on personality, physical growth, intellectual and social interactions
48
Nurture:
influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth and social interactions
49
Behavioral genetics
• Attempts to assess impact of genetics and environment
50
Genetics
• The science of heredity
51
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
* Basic building blocks of life
* A molecule that contains the genetic material of an organism
Gene- section of DNA that contains a sequence of amines that have Instructions for all an organism’s traits
52
Dominant
• Gene that actively controls the expression of a trait
Example Huntington’s disease
53
Recessive
• Trait is expressed when passed from both parents
Example: Tays-Sachs disorder and Phenylketonuria (PKU)
54
Chromosomes:
rod shaped structures found I the nucleus of each cell, are tightly wound strands of gene. If the number of chromosomes is altered in any way mild to severe problems develop.
55
• Germinal period(zygote)
first two weeks conception to implantation in the uterus
56
• Embryonic period (embryo)
2-8 weeks after fertilization
57
• Fetal period (fetus)
8-birth at about 40 weeks
58
Monozygotic twins
* Identical
* Zygote split into two cell masses
* Each cell develops into separate embryo
59
Dizygotic twins
* Fraternal twins
* Two eggs fertilized by two different sperm
* Two zygotes in the uterus at the same time
60
Miscarriage or spontaneous abortion
* Usually occurs in the first three months, organs are forming & become functional
* 15-20 percent pregnancies end in miscarriage
* Often caused by genetic defect
61
Birth
* Respiratory system begins to function
* Blood Circulates only within the infant’s system after the umbilical cord is cut
* Body temperature is now regulated by the infants own activity and stored body fat, instead of the amniotic fluid
* Digestive system begins to work
62
1. Reflexes
• Innate (existing from birth) involuntary
behavior patterns/movement to stimulation
• Include sucking, rooting, Moro (startle),
grasping, Babinski.
• If a reflex is absent or abnormal it indicates a neurological problem (brain damage)
63
2. Taste and touch
are well developed at birth
64
3. Vision least developed at birth
* Black/white vision well developed at birth
| * Color vision takes another six months
65
1. Gross and fine motor skills
develop at a fast pace during infancy and early childhood
| • By age one, infant has tripled in weight
66
Cognitive development
(piaget’s theory)
67
Schema
mental concept or cognitive structure that organize our interactions with the environment
(born with innate schema of sucking, then develop more complex concept of “beauty”
68
• Children process new experiences through two processes
Assimilation Accommodation
69
Assimilation-
understand new things in terms of schemes they already possess
70
Accommodation
Adjusting existing schemas or developing new ones to fit with new information
71
Sensorimotor stage(BIRTH – 2 YEARS)
* Infant uses senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment
* Object permanence
* The knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight
72
Preoperational stage2-7 YEARS)
Child uses language as a means of exploring the world
• Egocentrism
• Inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes
• Centration
• Child TENDS TO focus only on one feature of object
• Ignores other features
• Conservation
• Changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature
• Irreversibility
• Inability to mentally reverse an action
73
Concrete operations (Ages 7-12)
* Capable of conservation and reversible thinking
* Begins to think more logically about beliefs
* Concrete concepts
* Are about objects, written rules, and real things
74
Formal operations (Ages 12-adult)
* Adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking
| * Only 35 % of all college students reach formal operations
75
Language acquisition
all normally developing humans have an innate ability to learn a language, progression through this largely depends on maturation
76
Autism spectrum disorder:
* Range of disorder which result in problems with social skills, relating to others, language, thinking, and perceiving
* Multiple causes are being examined
* Scientific studies have CONSISTENTLY failed to demonstrate a link between the MMR vaccine and Autism
77
temperament theory
Thomas and chess
78
Temperament:
Basic, inborn disposition and characteristic emotional response. • Styles seem consistent and enduring.
79
Three temperament styles (about 65% of infants could be classified into these groups)
Easy (40%) Regular, adaptable, and happy.
Difficult (10%)-Irregular in schedule, unhappy with change, loud.
Slow-to-warm-up (15%)-Quieter, need to adjust gradually to change
80
Ainsworth’s level of attachment
an emotional bond between an infant and caregiver generally develops in the first 6 months of life
81
• Securely attached (60%):
child Willing to explore, upset when mother departs but easily soothed upon her return
82
• Avoidant (15%):
Unattached; explore without “touching base”
83
• Ambivalent (10%):
“to have missed feelings” Insecurely attached; clinging and unwilling to explore, very upset by stranger regardless if mother was present or not, protested when she left, difficult to sooth, mixed reaction when she returns
84
• Disorganized/disoriented (15%)
Insecure attachment, fearful, dazed, depressed
85
2. Gender:
Behavior associated with being male or female
86
3. Gender roles:
Culture’s expectations for behavior associated with a gender
87
4. Gender identity:
Perception of one’s gender, Behavior that is associated with that gender:
88
5. Social learning theory
Attributes gender role development to observation and imitation of models
89
6. Gender schema theory
Combines social learning with cognitive development
90
Adolescence:
The period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties. Person is no longer physically a child. Not yet an independent, self-supporting adult
91
Puberty the period of adolescence
when people become capable of reproduction
92
Growth spurt occur due to a series of
hormonal changes when the genetically determined age is reached. (Puberty begins about 2 years after onset of growth spirt, on average for girls at age 10 and boys about age 12)
93
lKohlberg’s theory: (morality)
* A sense of right and wrong
* Three levels of moral development with two stages each
* Each stage is universal and in a set order
94
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
focuses on the role of an authority figure who determines what a correct action is or is not. Obedient to rules because of fear of punishment/consequences
95
Level 2 (Conventional)
focuses on the rules that maintain social order and allow people to get along behavior is governed by conforming to the society’s norms of behavior. According to Kohlberg, most adolescents are at this level of morality
96
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
Behavior is governed by moral principles decided on by the individual. May disagree with accepted social norms
97
Adulthood:
Begins at the early twenties, where previously young adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood
98
Climacteric
* Physical decline in the reproductive system of women
| * Ends at about age 50
99
Menopause
* Cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles
| * End of woman’s reproductive capability
100
Andropause
• Gradual change in sexual hormones, reproductive system of males
101
Cognitive development in adulthood:
* intellectual abilities do not decline noticeably
* Speed of processing (reaction time) does slow
* Memory hood
102
Cellular clock theory
* Cells only have so many times that they can reproduce
| * Limit reached, damaged cells accumulate
103
Wear-and-tear theory
* Repeated use and abuse of body’s tissues
| * Unable to repair all the damage
104
Free radical theory
* Oxygen molecules with an unstable electron move around the cell
* Damages cell structures as they go
105
: Kübler-Ross developed a five-stage theory of the psychological processes surrounding death:
```
Denial (“It can’t be true!”)
Anger (“Why me? It’s not fair!”)
Bargaining (“I’ll change everything!”)
Depression (“I’ve lost everything.”)
Acceptance (“I know my time is near.”)
```
106
Motivation
the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued usually toward a goal directed, and continued usually toward a goal so that physical/psychological needs or wants are met.
• Motivation is what makes our behavior more vigorous and energetic
107
Intrinsic motivation:
is a motivation because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal motivation.
108
Extrinsic motivation
is a motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is outside the person
109
Drive reduction theory:
connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior
110
Need:
* Requirement of material such as food or water
| * Essential for survival of the organism
111
Drive:
Psychological tension and physical arousal
• Arises from need
• Motivates organisms to act
• Fulfills the need and reduces tension
112
Homeostasis
tendency of the body to maintain a study/ state balance (ex: thermostat)
113
Need for achievement:
* Involves strong desire to succeed in attaining goals
| * Included realistic and challenging goals
114
Need for affiliation:
Need for friendly social interactions and desire to be liked by others
•Makes them good team players
115
Need for power:
Need to have control or influence over others
•They want their ideas used regardless if their ideas lead to success
•Status and prestige are important
116
Arousal theory:
People seek an optimal level of arousal that maximizes their performance.
• Seek to maintain tension by increasing or decreasing stimulation
• Moderate level of tension appears best for most tasks
117
Yerkes-Dodson law
Performance is related to arousal
•Moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance
•Effect varies with the difficulty of the task:
• Easy tasks require a high-moderate level
• More difficult tasks require a low-moderate level
118
Sensation seeker:
Needs more arousal than the average person. May be related to temperament
119
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
transcendence needs: to help others achieve self actualization
self-actualization needs: to find self-fulfillment and realize ones potential
Aesthetic needs: to appreciate symmetry, order , and beauty
Cognitive needs: to know understand and explore
Esteem needs: to achieve be competent gain approval and recognition
Belongingness and love needs: to be with others be accepted and belong
Safety needs: to feel secure and safe out of danger
Physiological needs: to satisfy hunger thirst fatigue etc
120
Psychoactive
drugs are defined as chemicals that alter thinking, perception and memory
121
Drug abuse
the drug taking that causes emotional or physical harm to the user or others
122
Drug Addiction
a compulsion to use a specific drug (now used to describe almost any type of compulsive activity)
123
Psychological dependence
the desire or craving to achieve the effects produced by the drug
124
Physical dependence
changes in bodily processes that make a drug necessary for minimal daily functioning (most clearly seen when the drug is withheld & when user undergoes withdrawal reaction such as pain or craving)
125
1. Tolerance
Decreased sensitivity to the drug that occurs after repeated use of a drug due to many of the body’s physiological processes adjusting to the higher and higher levels of the drug
126
2. Withdrawal
Discomfort and distress, including physical pain and intense cravings, experienced after stopping the use of addictive drugs
127
Four major categories of psychoactive drugs:
depressants, stimulants, opiates and hallucinogens
128
Depressants
All depress the CNS, causing relaxation, sedation, or possible loss of consciousness. Also cause disinhibition, slowed neural processing, memory disruption, reduced self-awareness & control
129
• Barbiturates
Seconal®, Nembutal®, Amytal® and Mebaral® etc.. Currently commonly used for anesthetics in surgery. Street Names: barbs, red devils, goof balls, yellow jackets, block busters, pinks, reds, blues, and Christmas trees
130
• Benzodiazepines-
aka Anxiolytics commonly used as prescription anti-anxiety drugs (Ativan, Xanax, Valium). Street Names: Benzos, Downers, Nerve Pills, Tranks)
131
• Alcohol
is involved in nearly half of all murders, suicides, spousal abuse, and accidental deaths in the United States and accounts for about half of all highway fatalities.
132
Stimulants
increase functioning of the nervous system
• Drugs that temporarily excite neural activity and arouse body function-stimulate the CNS
• Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, methamphetamines and cocaine
Prescription stimulants: Adderall, Dexedrine, Ritalin
• It acts as an Agonist to block the reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine
• Cocaine addicted monkeys will press a lever more than 12,000 times to get one cocaine injection
• Small doses of Cocaine can interfere with the electrical system of the heart, and cause strokes
• Methamphetamine is amphetamine double methylated (amphetamine is methylated once).
• the important thing to understand is that methamphetamine, because it has been methylated twice, is faster acting, more potent, and more addictive, and thus quite a bit more dangerous on constricting blood supply to the brain
133
Narcotics
Opium: Made from the opium poppy has been around for a millennium with known properties of pain relief and euphoria
Opioids (group of natural and synthetic drugs): drugs that affect endorphin/opioid receptor in CNS
• medically they are primarily used for pain relief
• morphine, oxycodone, hydrocodone
134
Hallucinogens:
are commonly known as “psychedelics” and produce sensory or perceptual distortions, including visual, auditory or kinesthetic hallucination.
• Marijuana, PCP, Ketamine, LSD
135
Cannabis:
grown from leaves and flowers of the hemp plant called cannabis stiva
