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Mar Bio 106 > Exam 2 (6-8) > Flashcards

Exam 2 (6-8) Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

energy

A

ability to do work (movement of matter)

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2
Q

potential energy

A

stored energy available to do work (chemical energy, ATP)

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3
Q

kinetic energy

A

energy being used to do work, energy of movement (whale surfacing ocean)

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4
Q

how efficient are cells at converting potential energy to kinetic energy?

A

cells are only 40% efficient at generating energy, 60% remaining comes in product of heat

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5
Q

heat

A

random motion of molecules

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6
Q

thermodynamic law of conservation of energy

A

energy cannot be created or destroyed, rather it changes form

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7
Q

thermodynamic law of entropy

A

energy cannot change from one form to another without the loss of usable energy

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8
Q

entropy

A

heat energy is disordered, all energy transformations will increase disorder, and therefore energy
Ex: cellular respiration - glucose + O2 converts to CO2 + H2O + ATP
generates energy, and ATP has a lot of potential energy, making it less stable

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8
Q

examples of potential energy

A

ATP, starting a car, water about to fall over a dam, concentration gradients

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8
Q

metabolism

A

all the chemical reactions in a cell. energy converting forms

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9
Q

endergonic reactions

A

reactions have less energy than the products +delta G and the reaction requires the input of energy

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9
Q

examples of kinetic energy

A

anything with movement, water falling over dam, car driving

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10
Q

exergonic reactions

A

reactants have more energy than the products -delta G and the reaction will occur spontaneously (no energy input needed)

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10
Q

examples of endergonic reactions

A

photosynthesis, the formation of ATP

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11
Q

examples of exergonic reactions

A

cellular respiration, break down of ATP into ADP

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12
Q

ATP functions

A
  • chemical work - synthesizing macromolecules
  • mechanical work - contraction of muscles
  • transport work - moving things across concentration gradient
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13
Q

coupled chemical reactions

A

both energy favorable and unfavorable reactions occur in same place at the same time
Ex: ATP hydrolysis and ATP synthesis

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14
Q

calorie

A

unit to measure energy, the energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1 degree C

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15
Q

kCal

A

1000 calories, a single calorie in food is refers to a single kCal

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16
Q

enzymes

A

molecules that catalyze chemical reactions without being consumed, reduce energy activation, end in -“ase”

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17
Q

metabolic pathways

A

a series of linked reactions that are each catalyzed by an enzyme, need the previous enzyme and substates product to create next reaction

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18
Q

degradation reaction

A

substrate is broken down into smaller products

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19
Q

synthesis reaction

A

substrates are combined to create a larger product

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20
Q

enzyme denaturation

A

factors that change shape of an active site preventing efficient binding of substrate

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21
Q

factors that affect enzyme activity

A

pH, temperature, concentration of substrate, regulating molecules (competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors, cofactors)

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22
Q

concentration of a substrate

A

need for a certain number of substrates to allow for adequate enzyme function

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23
Q

temperature for enzymes

A

impacts speed of enzyme, an optimal temperature is the point where an enzyme functions best, and a range around this optimal point also allows the enzyme to function, depends on type of enzyme

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24
Q

regulation - promoting enzymes

A

cofactors and coenzymes - increase enzyme activity

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25
Q

cofactors

A

inorganic, bind to an enzyme, examples include FAD, NADP+, and NAD+

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26
Q

coenzymes

A

organic, non protein molecules

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27
Q

regulation - inhibiting enzymes

A

competitive inhibitors and allosteric inhibitors - decreases / limits enzyme activity

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28
Q

allosteric inhibitors

A

non active site inhibition, prevent enzyme function, such as binding to allosteric site and changing shape of active site

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29
Q

competitive inhibitors

A

bind to active site to prevent enzyme function

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30
Q

noncompetitive inhibition

A

negative feedback loop that prevents wasteful production of products due to activity through regulating enzyme activity

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31
Q

REDOX reactions

A

oxidation and reduction reactions that are facilitated by specific enzymes to move electrons. essential for photosynthesis and cellular respiration!

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32
Q

oxidation

A

OIL - oxidize is lost - the loss of electrons / hydrogen ions

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33
Q

reduction

A

RIG - reduce is gain - the gain of electrons / hydrogen ions

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34
Q

redox in photosynthesis / photosynthesis equation

A

6 CO2 + 6 H2O –> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
–> Reduction occurs from 6 CO2 to C6H12O6 (H+ are gained)
–> Oxidation occurs from 6 H2O to 6 O2 (H+ are lost)

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35
Q

redox in cellular respiration / cellular respiration equation

A

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 –> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP
–> Oxidation occurs from C6H12O6 to 6 CO2 (H+ are lost)
–> Reduction occurs from 6 O2 to 6 H2O (H+ are gained)

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36
Q

helper molecules

A

the molecules necessary for the oxidation of glucose. include enzymes and coenzymes

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37
Q

aerobic CR

A

final electron acceptor is Oxygen

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38
Q

anaerobic CR

A

final electron acceptor is NOT Oxygen

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39
Q

molecules involved in CR

A
  • ATP
  • Pyruvate (3 carbon molecule)
  • Acetyl CoA (2 carbon coenzyme)
  • NAD+ / NADH (electron carrier molecule)
  • FADH / FADH+ (electron carrier molecule)
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40
Q

order of CR processes

A

glycolysis, (preparatory step), krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation

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41
Q

glycolysis

A
  • first phase of CR
  • occurs in cytoplasm
  • involves converting glucose (a 6 carbon) into pyruvate (3 carbon)
  • leads to a gain of 2 ATP
  • is an anaerobic process, and therefore primative
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42
Q

glycolysis inputs and outputs

A

Inputs
6C glucose
2 NAD+
2 ATP
4 ADP + 4 P

Outputs
2 (3C) Pyruvate
2 NADH
2 ADP
4 ATP

Net gain: 2 ATP

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43
Q

energy investment of glycolysis

A

2 ATP are used to activate glucose, adding their P’s to break glucose down into 2 G3P

44
Q

energy harvesting of glycolysis

A
  • oxidation of G3P occurs, through removing H+ ions and electrons (substrate level ATP synthesis occurs)
  • oxidation of BPG occurs via dehydration synthesis (substrate level ATP synthesis occurs)
  • 2 molecules of pyruvate result, as well as 2 NADH and 2 ATP
45
Q

substrate level ATP synthesis

A

when enzymes are involved in the production of ATP, occurring OUTSIDE mitochondria during glycolysis, in the cytoplasm

46
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

occurs INSIDE the mitochondria, during ETC / chemiosmosis

47
Q

fermentation

A

anaerobic process producing a limited amount of ATP when oxygen is not available
- varies by enzyme
- produces by-products of lactate (animals) or alcohol (plants)

48
Q

fermentation inputs and outputs

A

inputs
- glucose
- 2 ADP + 2P

outputs
- 2 lactate or 2 alcohol & 2 CO2

Net gain: 2 ATP

49
Q

where is atp generated and how many in each step?

A

glycolysis (cytoplasm)
2 ATP

krebs cycle (mitochondria, matrix)
2 ATP

ETC / chemiosmosis (mitochondria, inner membrane)
32 ATP

50
Q

cristae

A

mitochondria, short fingerlike projections formed by the folding of the inner membrane, where the ETC phase takes place, increase surface area

51
Q

matrix

A

mitochondria, semi-fluid substance inside organelles and the mitochondria where prep reaction and krebs cycle occurs

52
Q

preparatory step inputs and outputs

A

C3 Pyruvate is converted into acetyl CoA molecules

Inputs
- 2 pyruvate
- 2 CoA

Outputs
- 2 acetyl CoA
- 2 CO2

53
Q

kreb’s cycle

A
  • aka citric acid cycle
  • 3rd phase of CR (or second without prep step)
  • must run X2!!
  • occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria
  • leads to a net gain of 2 ATP
  • NAD+ reduced to NADH (3x per cycle, 6 total)
  • FADH reduced to FADH2 (1x per cycle, 2 total)
  • carbon molecules from glucose converted into CO2
54
Q

pyruvate

A

3 carbon molecule

55
Q

acetyl CoA

A

2 carbon molecule attached to coenzyme A (CoA)

56
Q

NAD+/NADH

A

electron carrier molecule

57
Q

FADH/FADH2

A

electron carrier molecule

58
Q

kreb’s cycle inputs and outputs

A

inputs
- 2 (2C) acetyl groups
- 6 NAD+
- 2 FAD
- 2 ADP + 2 P

outputs
- 4 CO2
- 6 NADH
- 2 FADH2

net gain: 2 ATP

59
Q

Electron transport chain (ETC)

A
  • final phase of CR
  • takes place inside mitochondria in inner membrane
  • movement across a concentration gradient DOWN the gradient, high to low energy CHEMIOSMOSIS
  • involves electron donors FADH2 and NADH
  • electron acceptor THE FINAL ONE is oxygen
60
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

mitochondria uses energy of ETC to create a hydrogen ion gradient that drives ATP production

61
Q

role of ATP synthase

A

A complex in the inner membrane that forms ATP through chemiosmosis

  • uses concentration gradient to gather energy from H+ to bond ADP with a phosphate
  • for every three protons added, enough energy is generated to bind a P to ADP to form ATP
62
Q

role of ETC in oxidative phosphorylation

A

ETC allows electron donors (FADH2 & NADH) to release electrons at beginning of chain (oxidation) where they are the energy to move Hydrogen ions out of the membrane, creating a higher concentration of H+ outside the membrane than inside the membrane. This allows the concentration gradient to be harnessed for energy in the ATP synthase complex that produces ATP.

*oxygen is the final electron acceptor and takes 2 hydrogen ions to form water

63
Q

ETC inputs and outputs

A

prior to ETC (inputs)
- 4 ATP
- 6 NADH+
- 2 FADH2

outputs
- 32 ATP
*realistically is around 30 because of energy needed for movement

64
Q

ETC members

A

Complexes / Protein pumps
- NADH-Q reductase
- cytochrome reductase
- cytochrome oxidase

Carriers / Transporters
- coenzyme Q
- cytochrome C

65
Q

role of proton pumps

A
  • Move protons OUT of matrix and into the intermembrane space
  • protons will then move back into the matrix to balance gradient, and allow for ATP synthase to create ATP
66
Q

Overall yield of ATP in CR

A

theoretical yield is 36-38 ATP
actual yield is 30 ATP, because only 32-39% of energy from glucose = ATP

energy is used to…
- move NADH into cell
- move pyruvate and ADP into cell

67
Q

catabolism

A

breakdown of molecules, degrative reactions

68
Q

anabolism

A

synthesis of molecules, constructive reactions

69
Q

metabolic pool

A

balance between catabolic and anabolic reactions, and the overall balance of metabolism

70
Q

autotroph

A

organisms that produce their own food
- need inorganic nutrients
- energy source outside organism

71
Q

heterotroph

A

organisms that require pre-formed organic nutrients to be used as an energy source

72
Q

marine photosynthetic autotrophs

A

phytoplankton, sea grasses, seaweeds (sargasso / sargassm), cyanobacteria

73
Q

what are the organisms that break down nitrogen gas?

A

diazotrophs

74
Q

photosynthesis

A

the process by which plants, algae and some prokaryotes harness solar energy and convert it into chemical energy

75
Q

stoma

A

cells on the exterior of cell layers in plant, found in leaves

76
Q

stomata

A

plural of stoma, where gas is diffused through the leaf

77
Q

what components are in the…

chloroplast

A

organelle of photosynthesis, green, have granums that contain thylakoids, inner and outer membranes, and DNA rings

78
Q

etymology of chloroplast

A

“chloro” - green
“plast” - formed / molding

79
Q

chlorophyll

A

one of the primary pigments of photosynthesis, housed in the photosystem, also abbreviated as chl

80
Q

photosystems

A

large embedded reaction center holding clusters of pigments and proteins participating in photosynthesis, found in thylakoid membrane

81
Q

electromagnetic spectrum

A

range of radiation

82
Q

photon

A

discrete packet of kinetic energy, come in form of solar energy / UV light

83
Q

wavelength

A

distance of movement during complete vibration in nanometers (nm), have an inverse relationship with energy

84
Q

as energy increases

A

wavelength decreases

85
Q

as wavelength increases

A

energy decreases

86
Q

absorption spectrum

A

different wavelengths absorb different amounts of energy, absorbing different parts of the visible spectrum

87
Q

what do cholorphyll absorb?

A

purples and blue (380 - 500 nm), and orange and red (600 - 750 nm)

88
Q

what does chlorophyll reflect?

A

yellow and green

89
Q

photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)

A

measurement of wavelength of light (nm) on relative absorption (%), shown in a graph of various pigments…

90
Q

how is UV light different in the water?

A

UV wavelengths are different because they are based on depth of absorption. Blue wavelength goes deepest, which is why the ocean appears blue

91
Q

light reactions inputs and outputs

A

inputs:
- water
- UV light
- ADP
- phosphate

outputs:
- oxygen
- NADPH
- ATP

92
Q

Calvin cycle inputs and outputs

A

inputs:
- NADPH
- ATP
- CO2

outputs:
- CH2O (simplified glucose).. leads to glucose

93
Q

light reactions

A
  • conversion of solar energy into chemical energy
  • occurs in thylakoid membrane
  • goal is to get energy from electrons
  • H2O input
  • O2 output
94
Q

carbon / calvin cycle reactions

A
  • produce sugar molecules from energy
  • occurs in the stroma
  • CO2 input, glucose output
95
Q

photosystem II

A

electrons are transferred here, where breakdown of water occurs via photolysis, electrons are then transferred down ETC in the thylakoid membrane

96
Q

photolysis

A

breaking water down into hydrogen and oxygen

97
Q

photosystem I

A

where NADP+ is reduced to create NADPH, this is then used combined with ATP in the calvin cycle, this also causes movement of H+ out of stroma and into thylakoid space

98
Q

what does the ETC do in photosynthesis?

A

pumps H+ ions into the thylakoid space, creating a concentration gradient. This energy is then used during the production of ATP via ATP synthase as the movement BACK INTO the stroma produces energy to bind P + ADP to make ATP

99
Q

cyclic pathway in photosynthesis

A

electrons cycle through pathway in photosystem I

100
Q

noncyclic pathway in photosynthesis

A

photosystem II electron transfer to ETC
photosys II in general…

101
Q

calvin cycle reactions

A

carbon fixation, CO2 reduction, RuBP regeneration

102
Q

carbon fixation

A
  • CO2 is attached to RuBP
  • creates unstable 6C molecule that splits into 3C molecules
103
Q

CO2 reduction

A

3PG is reduced to G3P:
1) ATP –> BPG (3 carbon)
2) NADPH –> G3P (3 carbon)

104
Q

RuBP regeneration

A

takes 3 turns of calvin cycle to regenerate 1 G3P for glucose
- remaining 5 G3P molecules are used to reform 3 RuBPs

105
Q

What is G3P used for?

A

amino acids, fatty acids, and glucose phosphate, which can be turned into fructose phosphate and then sucrose, or starch and cellulose.

106
Q

When does RuBP bind to CO2?

A

LOW temp, high CO2 to O2 ratio, known as the calvin cycle

107
Q

when does RuBP bind to O2?

A

HIGH temp, high O2 to CO2 ratio, known as photorespiration

108
Q

C3 carbon fixation pathways

A
  • temperate conditions
  • mesophyll
  • ex: wildflowers
109
Q

C4 spatial separation

A
  • hot and dry conditions
  • starts in mesophyll cell but carbon fixation occurs in BUNDLE SHEATH CELL
  • PEP Carboxylase - moves CO2 to specialized bundle sheath cells (acts as a transporter)
110
Q

CAM plants temporal separation

A
  • change TIME when carbon is fixed and when Calvin cycle run
  • ex: pineapple
  • typically occurs in a warmer env
  • PEP case converts to CO2 to C4
111
Q

carbon fixation pathways… what’s their purpose?

A
  • avoids wasting energy through photorespiration that would occur without adaptations
  • hot climates – stomata close needing adjustment to allow Calvin cycle to occur
112
Q

what can carbon signatures indicate?

A

the different carbon isotopes are what is used to carbon date – the change in a carbon fixation pathway can be used to determine what plants are involved in whatever is being studied

Mar Bio 106 (5 decks)

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