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PSY 251: BioPsych > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

poikilothermic

A

body temperature same as environment

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2
Q

homeothermic

A

warm blooded

better at heating than cooling

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3
Q

what is the sensor for hemeothermic

A

pre-optic area

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4
Q

what releases IL-1

A

leukocytes

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5
Q

what are leukocytes activated by

A

bacteria
virus
fungus

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6
Q

IL-1 does what

A

used during a fever

increases synthesis of prostaglandin

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7
Q

what does prostaglandin do

A

activates receptors in preoptic area

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8
Q

what does preoptic area activate

A

it activates the autonomic nervous system to raise body temperature
some bacteria grow less at higher temps

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9
Q

homeostasis involves what two types of behavior

A

reflexive (degrading fats) and overt (searching for food)

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10
Q

where to make lesion for rats to become obese

A

ventromedial hypothalamus

VMH

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11
Q

what is the normal role of the VMH

A

to stop eating behavior

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12
Q

where to make lesion for rat to stop eating

A

lateral hypothalamus

LH

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13
Q

what is the normal role of the lateral hypothalamus

A

to initiate eating behavior

also augments taste sensation, facilitates ingestion and swallowing, regulates ANS regulation of digestion

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14
Q

electrical stimulation of the LH produces what

A

stimulation-bound feeding

SBF

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15
Q

at high stimulation currents, LH stimulation supports what

A

brain-reward stimulation (via DA)

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16
Q

two signals for the onset and offset of hunger

A

a fast neural signal

a slow hormonal signal

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17
Q

what is believed to explain why someone has pain after having a limb removed

A

the touch fibers going into the substantia are always active to some degree, and even in the absence of pain there is a baseline of activity in touch fibers

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18
Q

what act as fast hunger-off signals

A

signals from stomach and from the mouth

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19
Q

food going straight into stomach

A

intragastrically

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20
Q

sham-fed

A

food never reaches stomach

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21
Q

what happens if an animal is sham-fed

A

they will eat more than animals that aren’t sham-fed, but they will still stop eating at some point

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22
Q

constant hedonic value

A

if starving, then shitty food is very pleasurable

if very full, really good food is still tempting

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23
Q

what causes bulimics to binge

A

a bulimic finds food equally pleasurable regardless of hunger state

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24
Q

stomach distension

A

a fast hunger off signal from the stomach

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25
Q

vagus nerve

A

connects stomach with VMH

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26
Q

what happens if you cut the vagus nerve

A

stomach distension no longer signals satiety

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27
Q

does the VMH receive fast or slow signals

A

fast

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28
Q

caloric content of food is a fast hunger off signal from the stomach via what nerve

A

splanchnic

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29
Q

blood is a fast or slow hunger off signal

A

slow

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30
Q

the original glucostatic theory

A

sites in brain (LH) have receptors that measure glucose levels in the blood that when no longer activated initiate LH activity and eating behavior

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31
Q

what is the problem with the original glucostatic model

A

diabetics have very high blood glucose level because they don’t have enough insulin but they’re always starving

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32
Q

hyperphagic

A

very hungry

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33
Q

diabetics show that it’s not _____ that is the slow hunger off signal, but it is _____

A

it’s not blood sugar

it is intracellular glucose

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34
Q

role of insulin

A

transfers glucose into cells

without it, glucose will not enter most cells

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35
Q

what is the problem with the glucostatic theory once we know that glucose needs to be inside the cells

A

most brain sites don’t need insulin to absorb glucose from the blood into the cells, so the diabetic’s brain should have plenty of glucose and therefore wouldn’t be hyperphagic

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36
Q

glucose receptors are not in the ___ but in the ___

A

not in the brain

in the liver

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37
Q

where does glucose need to be injected to satiate hunger

A

in liver or hepatic portal vein (directly to liver)

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38
Q

what happens when energy levels are high from high glucose levels

A

liver signals the brain via increased activity of inhibitory afferents from vagus nerve to LH to stop eating

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39
Q

what happens when energy levels are low from low glucose levels

A

liver signals the brain via decreased vagus nerve activity to initiate eating

LH is disinhibited

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40
Q

lipostatic theory

A

the brain indirectly measures fat by measuring free fatty acids

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41
Q

the two stages of lesioning the VMH

A

dynamic phase: lots of eating

static phase: eating curbs and a new constant but very high weight is set

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42
Q

how do you alter your weight set point

A

increasing the number of fat cells in body in early years, aka overfeeding

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43
Q

VMH lesion is altering what to make the rat gain weight

A

metabolism

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44
Q

insulin is released by what

A

islet cells of the pancreas

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45
Q

insulin increases the conversion of glucose to what

A

glycogen (happens in the liver; glycogen is stored form of glucose)

fats

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46
Q

insulin facilitates the transport of fats into where

A

adipose tissue

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47
Q

fats are stored as what

A

triglycerides

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48
Q

triglycerides are what

A

glycerol and fatty acids

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49
Q

order from which glucose is used in the body

A

blood stream
glycogen in muscles and liver
stored fat cells (breaks down into three fatty acids)
muscle

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50
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

getting glucose from muscle

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51
Q

glucagon is released by what

A

the islet cells of the pancreas

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52
Q

what does glucagon do

A

when blood glucose levels fall, its release causes glycogen to be broken down into glucose in the liver

also breaks down fats into fatty acids

can break down fatty acids into ketones

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53
Q

VMH activation inhibits what

A

secretion of insulin by the pancreas

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54
Q

when a VMH lesion disinhibits insulin release, what does this result in

A

excess insulin and excess fat storage, or not enough free fatty acids for energy

so even if an animal eats a lot, it can’t be used for energy

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55
Q

where is the fat signal monitored

A

the liver monitors free fatty acid levels

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56
Q

what happens when free fatty acid levels are high

A

the liver signals hunger (disinhibits LH)

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57
Q

when are fatty acid levels high

A

when there is little food in the body and fat is broken down for energy

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58
Q

VMH

A

stop eating behavior

stop hunger

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59
Q

LH

A

start eating behavior

start hunger

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60
Q

LH is disinhibited by

A

low glucose levels in liver

it is disinhibited via decreased activity of inhibitory vagus nerve inputs to LH

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61
Q

stimulation of the LH increases release of what

A

insulin

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62
Q

lesions of the LH result in what

A

decrease in insulin levels

breakdown of fat to FFAs

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63
Q

In summary, the stomach has receptors for ____ ____ and ____ ____, and sends a ____ ____ ____ signal via the ____ ____ to the ____

A

In summary, the stomach has receptors for stomach distension and caloric content, and sends a fast hunger off signal via the vagus nerve to the VMH

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64
Q

In summary, the liver has receptors for ____ and ____ ____ ____, and sends a ____ ____ ____ signal to the ____

A

In summary, the liver has receptors for glucose and free fatty acids, and sends a slow hunger on signal to the LH

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65
Q

bulimia includes higher than normal levels of ___ and lower than normal levels of ___

A

higher levels of NPY

lower levels of CCK

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66
Q

homonculus

A

a visual representation of how much of the sensory cortex is dedicated to each body part

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67
Q

the more ___ the larger the part of the map of sensory cortex that is dedicated to that body part

A

receptors in the area

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68
Q

the receptors for touch, pressure, and vibration are

A

dendrites of sensory neurons located within specialized end organs

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69
Q

what is the gold standard of end organs

A

pacinian corpuscle

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70
Q

what do end organs do

A

transmit specific stimuli to receptors, which transduce the stimuli to neural impulses

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71
Q

pacinian corpuscles

A

pressure

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72
Q

how is a pain stimulus transduced

A

free nerve endings of sensory neurons

73
Q

end organs use what kind of ion channels for touch and pressure

A

mechanically gated

74
Q

what kind of ion channels for pain

A

chemically gated

75
Q

what chemical is released at beginning of pain transmission

A

endotoxins

these are released by dying or injured cells

76
Q

what do endotoxins activated

A

chemically gated ion channels on free nerve endings of dendrites

77
Q

how many pairs of spinal nerves

A

31

78
Q

above the neck, cutaneous facial information reaches the brain via which cranial nerve

A

fifth

trigeminal

79
Q

cervical

A

neck

80
Q

thoracic

A

chest and upper back

81
Q

lumbar

A

lower back

82
Q

sacral

A

down to base of spinal cord, coccyx

83
Q

all spinal nerves are mixed nerves which means what

A

they have both sensory and motor axons, and as you leave the spinal cord there are two subgroups

84
Q

two subgroups of spinal nerves

A

dorsal and ventral

85
Q

dorsal

A

input

sensory

86
Q

ventral

A

output

motor

87
Q

dermatome

A

a region of the skin innervated by an individual spinal nerve

therefore there are 31 dermatomes below the neck on each side of the body

88
Q

why do dermatomes overlap

A

if a nerve gets cut, you can still get info from that area via other dermatomes

89
Q

three types of sensory neurons

A

A-beta fibers
A-delta fibers
C-fibers

90
Q

A-beta fibers

A

touch and pressure
thick and myelinated
fastest

91
Q

A-delta fibers

A

pain
medium and myelinated
middle speed

92
Q

C-fibers

A

pain
thin and unmyelinated
slow

93
Q

is pain or touch transmitted faster

A

touch

A-beta fibers are thickest and myelinated

94
Q

which fiber carries fast sharp pricking stabbing pain

A

A-delta

thicker than C-fiber and myelinated

95
Q

which fiber carries slow throbbing burning aching pain

A

C-fibers

thin and unmyelinated

96
Q

cutaneous info reaches brain via two ____ neural systems

A

ascending

97
Q

what are the two ascending neural systems

A 
dorsal column (medial lemniscus)
anterolateral tract
98
Q

is there a synapse for touch fibers

A

no

99
Q

decussation

A

crossing over of the axon traveling to the other side of the brain towards thalamus

100
Q

from spinal cord to brain for cutaneous information

A

no synapse of touch fibers
touch axons head to medulla
synapse in medulla in same side of body as original axon
next axons cross over to other side to thalamus
filtering of info in thalamus: either carries on to somatosensory cortex or it stops

101
Q

when do you first feel the touch sensation

A

when the impulse reaches the somatosensory cortex AFTER it has gone through medulla and thalamus

102
Q

axons leave in a tract from the medulla, what is this called

A

medial lemniscus

this is what crosses over to opposite side

103
Q

after the medial lemniscus crosses over, it picks up axons of what

A

picks up axons of the trigeminal nerve carrying touch and pressure info from head and face

104
Q

after the medial lemniscus crosses over and picks up axons of trigeminal nerve

A

heads to thalamus and synapses

105
Q

from the thalamus, info is sent to what places

A

primary or secondary somatosensory area

106
Q

primary somatosensory area

A

receives only ipsilateral information

107
Q

secondary somatosensory area

A

receives touch and pressure info from both sides of the body (mostly face)

108
Q

relationship between pressure and generator potential for A-beta

A

greater pressure means greater generator potential in dendrites of A-beta neurons

with continued pressure, there is adaptation

109
Q

the stronger the stimulus, the _____ the ____ ____ of a neuron

A

the higher the firing rate

110
Q

pain info comes in through ____ region of the spinal cord and synapses in ____ ____

A

dorsal region

dorsal horn

111
Q

where do pain axons release neurotransmitter

A

onto the next axons on the opposite side of spinal cord

112
Q

what system has A-delta and C-fibers

A

anterolateral system

it must split for us to tell the difference

113
Q

nociceptors

A

respond to injury

the free nerve endings of A-delta and C-fibers

114
Q

tissue injury releases what

A

histamine and other endotoxins that act upon chemically gated ion channels

115
Q

pain fibers conduct to terminals in ___ ___ of spinal cord in layers ___ and ___. ___ ___ is released here

A

dorsal horn
1 and 5
Substance P

116
Q

3 pathways that comprise the anterolateral system

A

spinothalamic tract
spinomesencephalic tract
spinoreticular tract

117
Q

spinothalamic tract

A

thalamus
fast pain
C-fiber

118
Q

spinomesencephalic tract

A

limbic, emotion
slow pain
A-delta

119
Q

spinoreticular tract

A

reticular formation, medulla
alert and awake
pay attention to throbbing slow pain
A-delta

120
Q

which tract/tracts are affective/motivational aspect of pain

A

spinomesencephalic
spinoreticular
slow, emotion aspect of pain

121
Q

which tract/tracts are sensory/discriminative aspect of pain

A

spinothalamic

fast pain, where the pain is

122
Q

neuralgia

A

inflammation of peripheral nerves

123
Q

causalgia

A

gunshot

124
Q

interneurons are where in the dorsal horn

A

layers 2 and 3

the substantia gelatinosa

125
Q

why do A-beta fibers interact with A-delta and C-fibers via interneurons

A

to inhibit pain transmission

“closing the gate”

126
Q

what happens if you lose A-beta inhibition

A

pain transmission is disinhibited

chronic pain

127
Q

narcotic analgesics

A

in layers 2 and 3 of dorsal horn

tell spinal cord to block pain info

128
Q

____ induces releases of ____ ____ from opioid interneurons in ____ ____. These ____ inhibit release of ____ ____, causing ____

A

Serotonin induces releases of opioid peptides from opioid interneurons in dorsal horn. These opioids inhibit release of Substance P, causing analgesia

129
Q

Axon of ____ synapses onto axon of ____ ____ that is releasing ____ ____. ____ sends axons down into spinal cord into layers ____ and ____ of ____ ____ (____ ____) to activate ____.

A

Axon of interneuron synapses onto axon of pain fiber that is releasing substance P. Midbrain sends axons down into spinal cord into layers two and three of dorsal horn (substancia gelatinosa) to activate interneurons.

130
Q

____ and ____ are two major ____ brain sites. They don’t ____ pain info, but they send out pain ____ signals through ____ ____. This means they send ____ down to ____ pain.

A

PAG and NRM are two major analgesic brain sites. They don’t receive pain info, but they send out pain suppressing signals through descending inhibition. This means they send axons down to inhibit pain.

131
Q

When activated, the ____ releases our own internal ____, ____ (which is like morphine), which activates ____ ____. Opiate drugs activate the ____ and ____.

A

When activated, the interneuron releases our own internal opiate, enkephalin (which is like morphine), which activates opiate receptors. Opiate drugs activate the PAG and NRM.

132
Q

____ bind onto the ____ of pain axons. There are opiate ____ on the axon ____ of the ____ axons, ____ substance P release.

A

Endorphins bind onto the terminal of pain axons. There are opiate receptors on the axon terminals of the pain axons, suppressing substance P release.

133
Q

The more you activate ____ and ____, the more you ____ the ____ system. You can never completely do this because ___________

A

The more you activate PAG and NRM, the more you suppress the anterolateral system. You can never completely do this because this stuff only happens in two layers of the dorsal horn.

134
Q

opiate narcotics

A

naturally occurring pain-relievers from poppy

morphine and codeine

135
Q

two synthetic drugs with morphine-like actions

A

heroin

demerol

136
Q

applying morphine to where produces analgesia

A

PAG
NRM
dorsal horn

137
Q

analgesia

A

inability to feel pain

138
Q

transduction

A

stimuli from the environment are converted into electrical signals (EPSP/IPSP) by the receptor

139
Q

tinnitus

A

loud sounds have killed off hair cells in ear, remaining ones are damaged
always hear ringing

140
Q

light produces IPSP or EPSP

A

IPSP

141
Q

darkness produces IPSP or EPSP

A

EPSP

142
Q

hair cells produce IPSP or EPSP

A

EPSP

143
Q

only when action potential reaches ____ do we feel stimulus

A

cortex

144
Q

receptors convert stimuli in environment into ____ ____ on sensory neuron

A

generator potentials

145
Q

Before the sensory neuron, generator potentials are ____ ____. After the sensory neuron, they are ____ ____ ____.

A

Before the sensory neuron, generator potentials are graded potentials. After the sensory neuron, they are all-or-none action potentials.

146
Q

a receptor that is sensitive to a particular environmental stimulus is

A

a stimulus-gated ion channel

147
Q

A stimulus alters the ____ of the ion channel on the ____. It is usually an ____ ion channel. It usually ____ the ____ of the ____ channel and produces ____.

A

A stimulus alters the permeability of the ion channel on the receptor. It is usually an Na+ ion channel. It usually increases the permeability of the Na+ channel and produces depolarization.

148
Q

generator potential

A

the change in membrane potential on the receptor

149
Q

Generator Potential
bigger stimulus =
longer stimulus =

A

bigger stimulus = bigger generator potential

longer stimulus = will end early sometimes due to adaptaion

150
Q

Action Potential
bigger stimulus =
longer stimulus =

A

bigger stimulus = more action potentials closer together

longer stimulus = more action potentials closer together but get further apart as stimulus goes on

151
Q

The generator potential spreads ____ using ____ properties. It is ____ and ____. The ____ of the generator potential is ____ to the ____ of the ____. ____ generator potentials are needed to produce an ____ ____ at the ____ ____.

A

The generator potential spreads passively using cable properties. It is graded and decremental. The magnitude of the generator potential is proportional to the strength of the stimulus. Many generator potentials are needed to produce an axon potential at the sensory neuron.

152
Q

The greater the ____ of the summated generator potentials, the greater the ____ of the action potentials.

A

The greater the magnitude of the summated generator potentials, the greater the frequency of the action potentials.

153
Q

why does adaptation occur for touch

A

the end organ gets physically distorted when it’s touched and fluid sloshes around… dendrites start moving around, opens mechanically-gated ion channels. after a while the sloshing stops and end organ accepts its new shape

154
Q

the two forms of coding of sensory info

A

anatomical and functional

155
Q

anatomical coding

A

different modes of stimuli (visual, taste, etc) travel via sensory neurons to different areas of the brain

156
Q

anatomical coding: law of specific nerve energies

A

Johannes Muller

“the nature of a sensory message is determined by the specific sensory pathways that are activated”

157
Q

functional coding

A

within a different kind of stimulus, different intensities are determined by the frequency of action potentials arriving at the location (loudness, brightness)

158
Q

frequency for hearing

A

pitch

159
Q

amplitude for hearing

A

loudness

160
Q

wave form shape for hearing

A

timbre

161
Q

Sensory information contains both a ____ aspect (via ____ to ____ ____) and a ____ aspect (via ____ ____)

A

Sensory information contains both a discriminative aspect (via thalamus to sensory cortex) and a motivational aspect (via reticular formation)

162
Q

how can you increase the ability of the brain to distinguish between two stimuli arriving in the sensory cortex

A

stimulate reticular formation

163
Q

prosopagnosia

A

inability to recognize familiar faces

damage to parts of brain involved in high-level interpretation of sensory input

164
Q

blindsight

A

a case of agnosia–missing last part of sensory info

all sensory systems work up until the conscious awareness part

165
Q

true/false

sensory receptors always consist of mechanically gated ion channels

A

false

166
Q

true/false

the generator potential is an all-or-none neural impulse

A

false

167
Q

true/false

c-fibers are involved in transmitting touch and pressure

A

false

168
Q

true/false

for the most part, medium diameter/moderately myelinated pain fibers carry sharp pain

A

true

169
Q

true/false

touch fibers first synapse in the spinal cord

A

false

170
Q

true/false

morphine acts to alleviate pain in the spinal cord as well as the brain

A

true

171
Q

neurons involved in suppressing pain within the substantia gelantinosa via descending inhibition probably originate in the

A

periaqueductal gray

PAG

172
Q

true/false

according to the opponent process theory of motivation, removal of stimuli in the environment associated with drug use increases the A process

A

false

173
Q

a person suffering from chronic pain who is treated with the removal of the thalamus is most likely to say

A

the pain bothers me just as much but i can’t describe the pain

174
Q

the pacinian corpuscle is capable of adaptation

true/false

A

true

175
Q

a gunshot to the back of the head is most likely to disrupt

A

vision

176
Q

the reticular formation is considered the active relay station of the brain

true/false

A

false

177
Q

methods of eliminating a conditioned response

A

extinction

counter conditioning

178
Q

touch receptors contain ion channels most sensitive to

A

mechanical deformation

179
Q

the sensation of hue is associated with changes in

A

frequency of light

PSY 251: BioPsych (2 decks)

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