Exam 2 Flashcards
A(n) __, is an evaluation of a person, object or idea
Attitude
A(n) __ component, consisting of emotional reactions toward the attitude object (e.g., another person or a social issue)
Affective
A(n) __ component, consisting of thoughts and beliefs about the attitude object
Cognitive
A(n) __ component, consisting of actions or observable behavior toward the attitude object
Behavioural
An attitude is made up of three components:
1) Affective
2) Behavioural
3) Cognitive
A(n) __, is an attitude based primarily on people’s emotions and feelings about the attitude object
Affectively based attitude
What are the three things in common that affectively based attitudes have?
1) They do not result from a rational examination of the issues
2) They are not governed by logic (e.g., persuasive arguments about the issues seldom change an affectively based attitude)
3) They are often linked to people’s values, so that trying to change them challenges those values
Attitudes toward abortion, the death penalty, and premarital sex are examples of affectively based attitudes that are likely to be based on people’s __
Value systems
A(n) __ is an attitude based primarily on a person’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object
Cognitively based attitude
A(n) __ is an attitude based primarily on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object
Behaviourally based attitude
What is Daryl Bem’s self-perception theory?
Under certain circumstances people don’t know how they feel until they see how they behave
Haddock and Zanna (1998) found that attitudes toward social issues such as capital punishment were more likely to be based on how people __ about the issue, rather than on their __ about it
Felt (affect); thoughts (cognition)
__ attitudes are ones we consciously endorse and can easily report; they are what we think of as our evaluations when someone asks us a question
Explicit
__ attitudes are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious
Implicit
__, is a theory that the best predictors of a person’s planned, deliberate behaviors are the person’s attitudes toward specific behaviors subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
Theory of planned behavior
The theory of planned behavior holds that only __ toward the behavior in question can be expected to predict that behavior
Specific attitudes
__, is communication (e.g., a speech or television advertisement) advocating a particular side of an issue
Persuasive communication
__, is the study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages; researchers in this tradition focus on “who said what to whom” - that is, on the source of communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience
Yale Attitude Change Approach
__, is the theory that there are two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: people either process the merits of the arguments (known as systematic processing) or are swayed by factors that are peripheral to the message itself, such as “experts are always right”
Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion
__, is the theory that there are two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: the central route occurs when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and the peripheral route occurs when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics (e.g., who gave the speech)
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Sometimes people elaborate on what they hear, carefully thinking about and processing the content of the communication. Chaiken calls this __, whereas Petty and Cacioppo call this __
Systematic processing; central route to persuasion
Under other conditions, people are not motivated to pay attention to the facts; instead they notice only the surface characteristics of the message, such as how long it is and who is delivering it. (Persuaded if the message is long or if the communicator is attractive or an expert). Chaiken calls this __, whereas Petty and Cacioppo call this __
Heuristic processing; peripheral route to persuasion (because people are swayed by things peripheral to the message itself)
Pg. 165
What determines whether people take the central versus the peripheral route to persuasion?
- If people are truly interested in the topic and motivated and ability to pay close attention to the arguments and if nothing is distracting them, they will take the central route
- If people are bored, tired, or not able to concentrate, they will tend to take the peripheral route
What did the researchers at Brock University discover about taking the central route in comparison to the peripheral route?
That people were more likely to take the central route when the message was presented in clear, comprehensible language; and they relied on the peripheral route when arguments were presented using complicated, jargon-laden language
A pervasive message that attempts to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears is known as __
Fear-arousing communication
Attitudes that are based more on beliefs about the attitude object are __, whereas others are based more on emotions and values are __
Cognitively based attitudes; affectively based attitudes
A case study researched by Han and Shavitt showed which differences in American and Korean ads?
- American ads tended to emphasize individuality, self-improvement, and benefits of the product for the individual consumer
- Korean ads tended to emphasize the family, concerns about others, and benefits for one’s social group
Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but that supposedly influence people’s judgments, attitudes, and behaviors is known as __
Subliminal messages
What type of evidence suggests that subliminal messages in advertising works?
There is no evidence that the types of subliminal messaged used in everyday life have any influence on people’s behavior
- One study randomly assigned people to listen to a subliminal self-help tape designed to improve memory or one designed to improve self-esteem. Neither of the tapes had any effect on people’s memory or self-esteem
The process of making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position is known as __
Attitude inoculation
What is cognitive dissonance?
A feeling of discomfort caused by the realization that one’s behavior is inconsistent with one’s attitudes or that one holds two conflicting attitudes
Pg. 174
__, is dissonance that is inevitably aroused after a person makes a decision, such dissonance is typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives
Post-decision dissonance
Pg. 177
__, is the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain
Justification of effort
__, is a person’s reason or explanation for dissonant behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., to receive a large reward or avoid a severe punishment)
External justification
__, is the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one’s attitude or behavior)
Internal justification
__, is the process that occurs when a person states an opinion or attitude that runs counter to his or her private belief or attitude
Counter-attitudinal advocacy
Pg. 181
__, is the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object
Insufficient punishment
__, is the potential for dissonance reduction to produce a succession of self-justifications that ultimately result in a chain of stupid or immoral actions
Rationalization trap
__, is a theory suggesting that people will reduce the impact of a dissonance-arousing threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence on some dimension unrelated to the threat
Self-affirmation theory
There is evidence that affirming people in some way (e.g., boosting their self-esteem) or reminding them of their morals may reverse the __
Rationalization trap
Students that were paid $20 for lying, rated the activity as __, whereas the students that were paid $1, rated the activity __
Boring and dull; significantly more enjoyable
McAlister and colleagues (1980) used a role-playing technique with seventh graders designed to prevent smoking in adolescents. What did they find?
These students were significantly less likely to smoke three years after the study, compared with a control group that had not participated in the program
Pg. 173
Bernard, Maio, and Olson (2003) had participants generate various kinds of arguments supporting the value of equality. A control group was not required to generate any arguments. What did they find?
Those who had formulated arguments were less likely to be persuaded by messages attacking the value of equality
- There is evidence that if people are able to resist an attack on their attitudes, they may actually come to hold those attitudes with greater certainty as a result
Why is product placement generally more successful than commercials?
People do not realize that someone is trying to influence their attitudes and behavior
According to social comparison interpretation, when people discuss an issue in a group, what happens?
- They first check how everyone else feels; what does the group value - being risky or being cautious?
- Many people take a position that is similar to everyone else’s but a little more extreme. In this way, the individual supports the group’s value and also presents him/herself in a positive light (impressive thinker)
What is great person theory?
The theory that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation the leader faces
Compared with nonleaders, leaders tend to be:
More intelligent, more extroverted, more driven by the desire for power, more charismatic, more socially skilled, more adaptive and flexible, and more confident in their leadership abilities
Bradley and colleagues (2002) followed Canadian Forced officer candidates and discovered which one trait that emerged as particularly useful in predicting who would make a good leader? Why?
Dominance
- It suggests that “military operations are not the place for insecure people”
What is integrative complexity? (Peter Suedfeld and his colleagues)
The ability to recognize more than one perspective on an issue and to be able to integrate these various perspectives
- These researchers have found substantial correlations between integrative complexity and greatness among Canadian prime ministers and other prominent leaders
Simonton (1987, 2001) gathered information on 100 personal attributes of all U.S presidents, and found three variables that correlated with how effective the presidents were in office, as rated by historians:
- Height
- Family size
- Number of books a president published before taking office
- The other 97 characteristics, including personality traits, were not related to leadership effectiveness at all *
Stewart McCann (1992) did a similar study as Simonton (1987, 2001) and found which variables that emerged?
- IQ
- Height
- Attractiveness
- Tidiness
- Achievement drive
- Specifically, great presidents tend to be smart, tall, not good-looking, messy, and achievement-oriented *
__, are leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them
Transactional leaders
__, are leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals
Transformational leaders
Most research has focused on which type of leaders?
Transformational
Are transformational and transactional leadership styles mutually exclusive?
No, in fact, the most effective leader is one who adopts both styles
Peter Suedfeld and his colleagues made the discovery that great leaders __ in integrative complexity during a crisis and then return to their usual level of complexity afterward
Increase
__, is the theory that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is, and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group
Contingency Theory of Leadership
__, is a leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with the feelings of and relationships among the workers
Task-oriented leader
__, is a leader who is concerned primarily with the feelings of and relationships among the workers
Relationship-oriented leader
Task-oriented leaders do well in __ work situations - situations in which the leader has excellent interpersonal relationships with subordinates, his or her position in the company is clearly perceived as powerful, and the work to be done by the group is structured and well defined
High control
__ work are situations in which the leader has poor relationships with subordinates and the work to be done is not clearly defined
Low control
Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in situations that are __ work situations; the leader who can soothe such feelings will be most successful
Moderate control
According to Fiedler, task-oriented leaders perform best when situational control is __, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best when situational control is __
High or low; moderate
Women are expected to be __, and men are expected to be __
Communal; agentic
__, is a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual, if chosen by most people, will have harmful effects on everyone
Social dilemma
One of the most common ways of studying social dilemmas in the laboratory is with a game called the __
Prisoner’s dilemma
In a study conducted with Chinese students in Hong Kong, it was found that showing symbols of Chinese culture before the game (i.e. Chinese dragon) made people more __, whereas showing them symbols of Western culture (i.e. American flag) made them more __
Cooperative; competitive
A study (Song, 2009) revealed that greater trust of __ than __ was confirmed. Why?
Individuals; groups
Because two individuals who play prisoner’s dilemma are more likely to cooperate than two groups who play the same game; people are more likely to assume that another individual is cooperative at heart and can be trusted, but that most groups of individuals will (if given the opportunity) stab us in the back like the sneaky bitches they are
__, is a means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (i.e. cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial
Tit-for-Tat strategy
Research conducted at the University of Guelph and at two universities in Japan has shown that freeloading is __ likely when the rewards at stake are large rather than small
Less
- When freeloading is reduced, groups can arrive at decisions that are beneficial to everyone and they do so more easily and efficiently
How did the participants respond to the trucking game dilemma?
In another version of the study, what happened when Acme was given a gate that could block Bolt from using that route? (Unilateral threat)
- Most of them worked out a solution that allowed both trucks to make a modest amount of money - taking turns, one waiting until the other person crossed the one-lane road, and then they would take that route as well
- In the other version, both participants lost more than when neither side had the gate; Acme won slightly more than Bolt, but won substantially more when neither side had the gate
Does the mode of communication affect the development of trust?
Yes it does; they found that negotiations conducted over electronic media were more hostile, and resulted in lower profits, than old-fashioned face-to-face negotiations
__, is a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict, in which offers and counter-offers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree
Negotiation
__, is a solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side
Integrative solution
What is one limit to successful negotiation?
People often assume they are locked in a conflict in which only one party can come out head; they don’t realize that solutions favorable to both parties are available
Why do people find it difficult to identity integrative solutions?
One barrier is a tendency for us to assume that what is important to us is obvious to everyone - including our opponent. However, this assumption is not necessarily warranted
Research has found that using threats to resolve conflict:
Often tends to escalate rather than resolve conflicts. Communication, resolves conflicts only when it promotes trust
