Exam 2 Flashcards
Robert Yerkes
Began studying animals –> strengthened comparative psy.
William Small
Introduced rat maze
Mary Floy Washburn
Publises “The Animal Mind” (inferred mental state of animals)
Ivan Pavlov
Objective psy. and Watson’s research supported by Pavlov
James Loeb developed a theory of animal behavior based on the concept of:
Trophism: An involuntary forced movement (animal’s reaction to a stimulus is direct and automatic) Automatic processes do not require further explanation of consciousness
Thorndike’s law of..
Effect:REWARD more effective than mere repetition
Thorndike’s experimental approach to the study of association & instrument used to study it
Connectionsim: Learning as connections bw stimuli and responses // Puzzle box
Thorndike argued that behavior must be redued to which simplest elements?
Stimulus-Response units
Pavlov’s psychic reflexes AKA
conditioned reflexes: conditioned stimulus was a bell –> Salivating to the sight of food is learned (conditioned reflex)
Pavlov increased controlled environment in studies though?
The Tower of silence
Pavlov’s 3 areas of study
Function of the nerves of the heart, primary digestive glands, and conditioned reflexes
Contributions of Pavlov
Demonstrated study of higher mental processes in physiological terms
What school of thought was the direct antecedent of behaviorism
functionalism/ Watson studied under Angell
According to Watson, psychology was to be
the science of behavior
not the introspective study of consciousness
a purely objective, experimental natural science
use animals and humans as subjects
Psychology’s goal: The prediction and control of behavior
The method’s of behaviorism (2)
(objective methods) Verbal report: Talking is a behavior bc it is observable/ Conditioned reflex method: Watson’s substitute for introspection
Behaviorism’s popular appeal
Behaviorism’s popularity stemmed from from Watson’s emphasis on the nurturing effect of the childhood environment in determining behavior and minimization of the impact of inherited tendencies
Contribution’s of Watson’s Behaviorism (3)
Made psy. more objective in methods and terminology
Stimulated great deal of research
Objective methods and language became part of the mainstream
Neo-Behaviorism (4) (3 ppl)
(1930-1960) S-O-R bonds/ Focuses on learning/ Operationism/ Physics as guide of psy. //Tolman, Hull, and Skinner
Sociobehaviorism (4) (2 ppl)
(1960-1990) S-O-R bonds/ Cognitive processes are important to learning behavior/ NEW operationism –> operational definition// Increase objectivity of language and terminology// Bandura & Rotter
Operationism
We do not know the meaning of a concept unless we have a direct way of studying it bc A physical concept is the same as the set of operations or procedures by which it is determined
Bridgman (1927) The Logic of Modern Physics
Precise definition of all physical concepts/ concept= procedure by which it is determined// Concepts wo this must be discarded
Subject matter of behaviorism(3)
Instincts/ emotions/ OVERT BEHAVIOR
Watson’s views on instincts
Accepted them @ first, not later –> Denied inherited capacities, temperaments, talents –> increase popularity w/ American public
Watson’s views on emotions
Each emo.=specific configuration of physiological changes
Mary Jones
desensitized fears in infants (Peter & bunny)// EARLY CBT /Fear can be UNlearned
Watson: Emotions completely described 3 things
Objective stimulus situation
Overt bodily response
Internal physiological changes (visible vs not)
Criticisms of Watson’s Behaviorism
Many psychologist believed Watson’s program omitted important components such as sensory and perceptual processes
Karl Lashley’s 2 principles
Law of mass action: The efficiency of learning is a function of the total mass of cortical tissue//
Equipotentiality: The idea that one part of the cerebral cortex is essentially equal to another in its contribution to learning
William McDougall
Instinct theory claims that human behavior derives from innate tendencies
Tolman’s 3 contributions
Learning theory, intervening variables, purposive behaviorism
Purposive behaviorism
Tolman’s: objective study of behavior+Goal orientation in behavior.// Learning=tool to achieve goal/NO consciousnessORintrospection/ ONLY overt responses
Intervening variables
Unobserved&inferred factors within the organism that are the actual determinants of behavior (Ex: Hunger)
Tolman’s 5 IV as causes of behavior
environmental stimuli, psychological drives, heredity, previous training, and age
Tolman proposed that it was NOT S-R, instead
S-O-R (O=organism)
Tolman’s learning theory
Sign Gestalts: Proposed a cognitive explanation for learning(repeated performance of a task strengthens the learned relationship bw environmental cues and the O’s expectations
Tolman’s 2 contributions
Recognized as a forerunner of contemporary cognitive psychology /Popularized using rats in psychological research conducted by neobehaviorist and learning theorists from 1930-1960s
Hull’s grand theory
Hypothetico-deductive method: Establish postulates/ deduce experimentally testable hypothesis
Hull’s view on motivation
A state of bodily need that arises from a deviation from optimal biological conditions
Hull’s view on drives
Stimulus arising from a state of tissue need that arouses or activates behavior/Drive reduction is the only basis of reinforcement
Hull’s 4 useful methods for sci. research
observation, systematic controlled observation, experimental testing of hypothesis, and hypothetico-deductive method
2 drives according to Hull
Primary drives: food, water, air, temp regulation, defecation, urination sex, sleep Secondary drives (learning): Relate to situations or environmental stimuli associated with the reduction of primary drives and so may become drives themselves
Hull’s law of primary reinforcement
When a S-R relationship is followed by a reduction in a bodily need, the probability increases that on subsequent occasions the same stimulus will evoke the same response
Hull’s habit forming
The strength of the S-R connection which is a function of the number of reinforcements
Learning: Hull vs. Tolman
Emphasis on reinforcement characterizes Hull’s system as a need-reduction theory, as opposed to Tolman’s cognitive theory
Hull’s criticism
Lack of generalizability
Hull’s contributions(2)
influenced large number of psychologists and research/ & expounded the objective behaviorist approach to psychology
Hull vs Skinner
Hull emphasized the importance of theory, Skinner advocated an empirical system with no theoretical framework within which to conduct research
Skinner concerned with 3 subjects
Behavioral control/behavior mod/utopian society
Skinner was devoted to?
The study of RESPONSES and DESCRIBING behavior rather than explaining it
Skinner’s “empty organism approach”
S-R
Skinner’s experimental designs
n=1/ MANY trials
Operant conditioning vs respondent/classical conditioning
Skinner vs Pavlov/ Operant involves behavior emitted by an org. themselves/Respondent is elicited by a specific observable stimulus
Operant behavior
Occurs without an observable external stimulus/operates on O’s environment
Skinner’s reinforcement vs punishment
Reinforcement: Increases behavior/ Punishment: decreases behavior
Skinner box studied what?
Studied bar pressing, measured rate of response
Skinner’s law of acquisition
Strength of behavior increases when followed by a reinforcer/ strengthens S-R bonds
Skinner’s Schedules of reinforcent (2)
Fixed interval reinforcement schedule: Reinforcement given every min or every four mins
Fixed ratio schedule, the reinforcer is presented not after a certain time interval, but after a predetermined number of responses
Skinner’s successive approximation
An explanation for the acquisition of COMPLEX behavior. (AKA shaping)
Behavior modifcation
Using + reinforcement to control or modify the behavior of individuals/ Punishment NOT part of behavior mod.
Criticisms of Skinner’s behaviorism (6)
Extreme positivism/ opposition to theory/n=1 studies/narrow range of behavior studied/position that all behaviors are learned/position on verbal learning challenged successfully by Chomsky
Contributions of Skinner’s behaviorism(2)
Influential for American psy. for 30yrs/Behavior mod
Bandura’s social cognitive theory (4)
Theory reflects zeitgeist: interest in cognitive factors/Research: behavior of human interaction/No introspection, emphasized importance of rewards or reinforcements in acquiring and modifying behavior/Against skinner’s research bc of isolation
Bandura’s social cognitive theory key components (4)
Thought processes important/not automatic behavior/REINFORCEMENT EFFECTIVE IF: consciously aware of, anticipates
Vicarious reinforcement:
Bandura’s notion that learning can occur by observing the behavior of other people, and the consequences of their behavior, rather than by always experiencing reinforcement personally
Skinner vs Bandura
Skinner: whoever controls reinforcers controls behavior/ Bandura: whoever controls society’s models controls behavior
Bandura: Self-efficacy
One’s sense of self-esteem and competence in dealing with life’s problems
Bandura on behavior modification
Modeling techniques are used to change behavior by having subjects observe a model in a situation that usually causes them some anxiety
Bandura’s contributions(3)
Behavior mod/self-efficacy/social cognitive theory
Rotter’s contributions(2)
coined “social learning theory”/ Locus of control
Rotter:4 principles affecting behavior
Expectation of amount & kind of reinforcement/ estimation of probability of behavior –> reinforcement/ differential values of reinforcers/ diff ppl place diff value on the same reinforcers
Rotter’s locus of control
Belief about the source of one’s reinforcement
Gestalt psy view on perception
NOT passive, ACTIVE organizing of elements into a coherent experience instead
Mach
physics professor, had a book that heavily influenced Gestalt psy: Argued that our perception of an object doesn’t change, even if we change our orientation to it
Ehrenfels
“Gestalt qualitaten” Cannot take elementary sensations to create a large experience
Influential individuals on Gestalt psy.(3)
Kant,Stumpf, and James
Phenomenology
Stumpf: Introspection as it occurs wo reductionism
Phi phenomenon
Wertheimer: 2 dots=1 line (Whole DIFFERENT than sum of its parts)/ Cannot be reduced
Koffka
“Perception: An intro to Gestalt theory” led to misunderstanding that was only interest when Gestalt actually concerned with ALL aspects of consciousness
Kohler (2 influences/1 call to action)
Trained with Planck/studied and succeeded Stumpf/ Psychology must become ALLIED with physics
2 meanings of Gestalt according to Kohler
1) shape/form of objects//Whole entity (not restricted to visual or sensory fields)
Gestalt criticisms of behaviorism(5)
Denies consciousness/ doesn’t use introspection/ consists only of animal research/ artificial S-R bonds/ reductionistic and atomistic
Criticisms of Gestalt psychology(4)
Vague/lack of research/ Inferior to behaviorism/ poorly defined psych. assumptions
Isomorphism
Suggestion that brain activity is a configural/whole process// Conscious experience connected with brain experience
1895
Formal beginnings of psychoanalysis
Characteristics that differ psychoanalysis(4)
Not a science/ deals with the unconscious/ abnormal psy./ arose from medicine and psychiatry
Antecedent influences on psychoanalysis
PHL speculations about unconscious psychological phenomena (Liebnitz, Herbart, Fechner)
Early ideas about psychopathology (Greeks)
Evolutionary theory
Evolutionary theory and psychoanalysis (5)
Unconscious mental processes and conflicts, the significance of dreams, the hidden symbolism of certain behaviors, and the importance of sexual arousal, childhood development importance
Freud’s development of psychoanalysis and its subsections (5)
Identification, oedipal complex, electra complex, dream analysis, Freudian slip
Dorothea Dix
Worked to make asylums mroe humane
Catharsis
The process of reducing or eliminating a complex by recalling it to conscious awareness
Freud on instincts
mental representations of internal stimuli (such as hunger) that motivate personality & behavior/Goal: remove or reduce that stimulation through some behavior such as eating
Freud on Libido
Psychic energy that drives a person toward pleasurable thoughts and behaviors
Freud’s levels of personality
ID(libido;pleasure), ego(reason;reality), superego(morality)
Freud: 3 types of anxiety
Objective anxiety arises from actual dangers in the real world / Neurotic anxiety(fear of punishment) and moral anxiety (one’s conscience) arise from objective anxiety
Neo-Freudians
Only considered the ego & its independence from the ID/ less emphasis on biological forces as influences on personality, instead considered social and psychological forces
Anna Freud pioneered (2)
psychoanalysis of children and ego defenses
Ego defenses
Anna Freud/ Repression, regression, projection, and reaction formation
Melanie Klein
Initial SOCIAL ineraction bw infant and mother generalizes to all objects (ppl) in the child’s life. In this manner, the adult personality is rooted in the nature of the relationship of the 1st 6months of life
Jung’s contributions (5)
analytical psy., personality types, archetypes, collective unconscious, introversion and extraversion
Alfred Adler’s contributions (5)
birth order, inferiority feelings, individual psy., style of life, the creative power of the self
Individual psy. (5)
Adler: Based on social interest/ focused on conscious rather than unconscious determinants of behavior/ We are more strongly influenced by by our plans for the future/ emphasized unity&consistency of personality/ Goal: superiority
Inferiority feelings (2)
Adler: motivating force of behavior/ Inferiority complex: Renders the person incapable of coping with life’s problems
Style of life (2)
Adler: Drive for superiority is universal but each of us behaves in a different way to try and reach that goal/ we consciously create a lifestyle for ourselves
The creative power of the Self
Adler: Suggests that we have the capacity to determine our own personality in accordance with our unique style of life
Karen Horney’s contributions (4)
Womb envy/ basic anxiety: Feelings of isolation and helplessness in a hostile world/ Basic motivation: need for safety and freedom from fear/ primary need: security
Horney’s major contribution (2)
Describes personality using social rather than innate variables & writings on feminine psy.
Jung’s archetypes (4)
Persona (social mark), anima(feminine energy), animus (masculine energy), shadow (immoral, unacceptable desires//source of spontaneity, insight, and creativity), self (most important, provides unity to personality)
Self-actualization
The full development of one’s abilities and the realization of one’s potential
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (5)
Physiological needs: food, water, sex/ safety needs: security, order, and stability/ belongingness and love needs/ esteem needs (from self and others)/ need for self-actualization
Self-actualization and positive regard
Rogers: The greatest motivating force in personality is the drive to actualize the self/ + regard: The unconditional love of mother for her infant
Voluntarism and structuralism
established psychology and obtained its independence from PHL
Functionalism
Permeates modern psychology (animal psy. and applied psy)
Gestalt
Traditional areas: learning, perception, thinking/ applied areas: clinical psy and social psy.
Behaviorism
Profound impact/ maintained its ID despite factors
Psychoanalysis
significant influence on thoughts in psy and society
humanistic and cognitive
renewed focus on consciousness
Lieberman and cognitive psy
“Behaviorism and the mind: A (limited) call for a return to introspection” published in American psychologist
Antecedent influences on cognitive psy
ancient interest in consciousness, british empiricists, Wundt, structuralism and functionalism, behaviorism, Tolman, Gestalt psy., Piaget (work on cognitive stages of development in children)
2 key figures in cognitive psy
Miller and Neisser
Miller (2) contributions
developed computer based model of human thinking/ 7 plus or minus 2 notion
Neisser (2)
Published “Cognitive psy.” (landmark book –> father of cognitive psy.?)// published more ecologically valid studies
Computer metaphor (3)
Computer replaced clock as model of the mind/ Focus on the program (software) not the hardware (computer)/ Goal: Discovery of patterns of thinking (programs)
Artificial intelligence
Turing test
The nature of cognitive psychology
Emphasize mind, not behavior/ person ACTIVELY organizes stimuli received from environment/
Cognitive neuroscience
Gall, Flourens, and Broca map brain functions–> today’s mapping of brain and behavior// Goals: brain functions affect mental activity; correlates bw types of processes and specific brain regions
Unconscious cognition
AKA deliberation wo attention// does more than we thought// operates more quickly and efficiently
evolutionary psychology
Approach has become highly successful and influential and is occupying a central role in cognitive neuroscience
criticisms of cognitive psy. (3)
lack of agreement on concepts// confusion about terminology and definitions// overemphasis on cognition, ignoring motivation and emotion
Contributions of cognitive psy.
Widely accepted//achieved some features of a school of thought: multiple journals, lab, professional org. and meetings, body of research and terminology, followers
