Exam 2

Question 1

Sensorimotor

Answer 1

Birth -2 years
Infants “think” by acting on the world with their eyes, ears, hands, and mouth. As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box, finding hidden toys, and putting objects into and taking them out of containers.

Question 2

Preoperational

Answer 2

2 - 7 years
Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier sensorimotor discoveries. Development of language and make-believe play takes place. However, thinking lacks the logic of the two remaining stages.

Question 3

Concrete Operational

Answer 3

7 - 11 years
Children’s reasoning becomes logical. School-age children understand that a certain amount of lemonade or play dough remains the same even after its appearance changes. They also organize objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses. However, children think in a logical, organized fashion only when dealing with concrete information they can perceive directly.

Question 4

Formal Operational

Answer 4

11 years on
The capacity for abstract, systematic thinking enables adolescents, when faced with a problem, to start with a hypothesis, deduce testable inferences, and isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed. adolescents can also evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances.

Question 5

Centration

Answer 5

Preoperational Stage
The inability to conserve highlights several related assets of proportional children’s thinking. First, their understanding is centered, or characterized by centration. They focus on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features. In conservation of liquid, the child centers on the height of the water, failing to realize the changes in width compensate for changes in height. Second, children are easily distracted by the perceptual appearance of objects. Third, children treat the initial and fail stages of the water as unrelated events, ignoring the dynamic transformation (pouring of water) between them.

Question 6

Conservation

Answer 6

Preoperational Stage
Conservation refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearances changes.

Question 7

Irreversibility

Answer 7

Preoperational Stage
The most important illogical feature of proportional thought is its irreversibility, an inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point.

Question 8

Egocentrism

Answer 8

Preoperational Stage
For Piaget, the most fundamental deficiency of proportional thinking is egocentrism - failure to distinguish other’s symbolic viewpoints from one’s own. He believed that when children first mentally represent the world, they tend to focus on their own viewpoint and simple assume that others perceive, think, and feel the same way they do.

Question 9

Authoritative

Answer 9

Acceptance And Involvement:
Is warm, responsive, attentive, patient, and sensitive to the child’s needs.
Control:
Makes reasonable demands for maturity and consistently enforces and explains them.
Autonomy Granting:
Permits the child to make decisions in accord with readiness.
Encourages the child to express thoughts, feelings, and desires.
When parent and child disagree, engages in joint decision making when possible.

Question 10

Authoritarian

Answer 10

Acceptance And Involvement:
Is cold and rejecting and frequently degrades the child.
Control:
Makes many demands coercively, using force and punishment.
Often uses psychological control, withdrawing love and intruding on the child’s individuality.
Autonomy Granting:
Makes decisions for the child.
Rarely listens to the child’s point of view.

Question 11

Permissive

Answer 11

Acceptance And Involvement:
Is warm but overindulgent or inattentive.
Control:
Makes few or no demands for maturity.
Autonomy Granting:
Permits the child to make many decision before the child is ready.

Question 12

Uninvolved

Answer 12

Acceptance And Involvement:
  Is emotionally detached and withdrawn.
Control
  Makes few or no demands for maturity.
Autonomy Granting
  Is indifferent to the child's decision making and point of view.

Question 13

Cognitive Development (Adolescence)

Answer 13

Brain-imaging research reveals continued running of unused synapses in the cerebral cortex, especially in the prefrontal cortex. In addition, linkages between the two cerebral hemispheres through the corpus callous, and between the prefrontal cortex and other areas in the cerebral cortex and the inner brain (including the amygdala), expand, myelinated, and attain rapid communication. As a result, the prefrontal cortex becomes a more effective “executive” - overseeing and managing the integrated functioning of various areas, yielding more complex, flexible, and adaptive thinking and behavior. Consequently, adolescents gain in diverse cognitive skills, including processing speed and executive functioning.

Question 14

Dualistic Thinking

Answer 14

Dividing information, values, and authority into right and wrong, good and bad, we and they.

Question 15

Relativistic Thinking

Answer 15

Viewing all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought. Aware of a diversity of opinions on many topics, they gave up the possibility of absolute truth in favor of multiple truths, each relative to its context.

Question 16

Imaginary Audience

Answer 16

Adolescents’ belief that they are the focus of everyone else’s attention and concern.

Question 17

Moral Development: Preconventional Level

Answer 17

At the preconventional level, morality is external controlled. Children accept the rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences. Behaviors that result in punishment are viewed as bad, those that lead to rewards as good.

Question 18

Moral Development: Conventional Level

Answer 18

At the conventional level, individuals continue to regard conformity to social rules as important, but not for reasons of self-interest. Rather, they believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive relationships and societal order.

Question 19

Moral Development: Postconventional Level

Answer 19

Individuals at the postconventional level move beyond unquestioning support for their own society’s rules and laws. They define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies.

Question 20

Epistemic Cognition

Answer 20

Epistemic means “of or about knowledge,” and epistemic cognition refers to our reflections on how we arrived at facts, beliefs, and ideas.

Question 21

Correlation Design

Answer 21

In a correlation design, researchers gather information on individuals, generally in natural life circumstances, without altering their experiences. Then they look at relationships between participants’ characteristics and their behavior or development.

Question 22

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 22

A number that describes how two measures, or variables, are associated with each other.

Question 23

Sensitive Period

Answer 23

A sensitive period is a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. However, its boundaries are less well-defined than those of a critical period. Development can occur later, but it is harder to induce.