Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What were the main purposes of the Furumoto, L., & Scarborough (1986) article?
A
It gave an overview of the lives and experiences of early women in psychology, gave comparisons between influential women and men in psychology, and discussed how gender influenced their careers.
2
Q
Which publication did Cattell create in 1906 as a directory of individuals doing research?
A
American Men of Science
3
Q
Were women included in the publication, American Men of Science?
A
Yes!
4
Q
How did women participate in the early days of psychology?
A
They joined national associations, presented at conferences, and participated in research. Sought to advance education for women.
5
Q
What was one belief about why women should not receive a graduate level education?
A
It would make women unfit to fulfill the obligations widely accepted as the “women’s sphere:” piety, purity, submissiveness, and domesticity.
6
Q
How would you describe a female psychologist in 1906?
A
White Protestants of privileged middle-class backgrounds
7
Q
True or False? Men held more academic positions than women.
A
True. Women who did hold academic rank were unmarried
8
Q
True or False? Women’s research interests in the early days of psychology were different from men’s.
A
False. Interests spread across the breadth of discipline, and were not different from men.
9
Q
Was high professional achievement balanced between men and women?
A
No. Women were less likely to achieve professional status equivalent to that of men. If it was attained, women were unmarried and were likely employed in colleges for women.
10
Q
Describe the marriage-versus-career dilemma:
A
For a man, the potential for professional accomplishment was enhanced by marriage. For a woman, marriage and career were incompatible. Educated women were faced with a “cruel choice.”
11
Q
Who were the 3 meritorious female scientists that received special recognition?
A
Mary Whiton Calkins
Christine Ladd-Franklin
Margaret Floy Washburn.
12
Q
What experiences did Mary Whiton Calkins, Christine Ladd-Franklin, and Margaret Floy Washburn share?
A
Institutional discrimination in pursuing their PhD, limited employment opportunities, family obligations conflicting with career advancement, and the marriage-versus-career dilemma.
13
Q
Who was the first woman to have an official PhD, and from which school?
A
Margaret Floy Washburn, from Cornell University in 1894
14
Q
Name 2 conclusions offered by the Furumoto, L., & Scarborough (1986) article.
A
- Though similar in demographic variables and some aspects of education, women were restricted in the graduate studies that they might have undertaken to advance their career.
- Gender-specific factors affected the women’s experience (i.e. exclusion from employment opportunities, responsibility to families, and marriage vs. career dilemma)
15
Q
Which 3 career patterns did women demonstrate?
A
- No career beyond the doctorate
- Continuous careers restricted mainly to teaching in women’s colleges and normal schools (MOSTLY UNMARRIED GROUP)
- Interrupted or disjointed careers with lapses in employment or shifts in employment setting and type of work (MOSTLY MARRIED GROUP)
16
Q
How did Titchener view consciousness?
A
The sum total of mental processes that occur in the lifetime of an individual, at any given moment.
The first task in understanding consciousness was to discover its structure, it’s basic elements.
The second task was to discover how these elements combined.
The third task was to understand why the combinations occurred as they did. Can be explained by making connections to underlying physiological processes.
17
Q
Which three kinds of elements did Titchener think made up consciousness?
A
Sensations
Images
Feelings
18
Q
Which of the three elements (that made up consciousness) did Titchener focus on, and what were the four dimensions of this element?
A
Sensations;
(1) quality
(2) intensity
(3) duration
(4) clearness
19
Q
What type of scientific method did Titchener use to identify these elements of consciousness, and how did he label this method?
A
Observation, specifically self-observation; he called it introspection, meaning looking-within
20
Q
True or false: functionalism was influenced by the evolutionary ideas of Charles Darwin.
A
True
21
Q
What were the functionalists attempting to discover?
A
The adaptive significance of consciousness and the function of behavior
22
Q
If structuralism focused mainly on studies of sensations, what did functionalism spend the most time on?
A
Studies of learning and motivation
23
Q
True or false: Titchener considered the mind as independent from the nervous system.
A
False; he said that the mind should be considered as dependent upon the nervous system
24
Q
Titchener said that observation implied which two things:
A
(1) Attention to the phenomena, and
(2) record of the phenomena
25
Regarding the scope of psychology, Titchener said (1) it extends beyond man to ________ and (2) from individual man to ________, and (3) from the normal mind to the ________.
1. Animals
2. Groups of men, societies
3. Abnormal mind
26
In what context did Titchener believe a collective mind could exist?
When the sum total of human experience is considered as dependent upon a social group of similar individuals
27
True or False: Tichener believed that structuralism was a science and functionalism was nothing more than technology, while Angell disagreed with Tichener’s dogmatic point of view and defined functionalism as a broad and flexible and organic point of view in psychology.
True
28
What was Angell’s definition of functional psychology?
(1) The psychology of the how and why of consciousness
(2) The mind is primarily engaged in mediating between the environment and the needs of the organism
(3) Psychology that recognizes the significance of the mind-body relationship
29
How did Angell view consciousness?
Primarily and intrinsically as a control phenomenon
30
Which movement in the US fostered academic psychology’s study of sex differences, and thus psychology of women?
The functionalist movement
31
The incorporation of which theory into the practice of psychology made the study of the female legitimate?
Evolutionary theory
32
What are the two main concepts of the influence of evolutionary theory on the psychology of women?
1. Evolutionary theory emphasized the biological foundations of temperament, which led to academic discussion of maternal instinct
2. Evolutionary theory provided theoretical justification of the study of individual differences, which opened the door to the study of sex differences in sensory, motor, and intellectual abilities
33
Which three topics were of special significance to the psychology of women during the functionalist era:
1. structural differences in the brains of males and females and the implications of these differences for intelligence and temperament
2. the hypothesis of greater male variability and its relation to social and educational issues
3. maternal instinct and its meaning for a psychology of female “nature”
34
What method provided the first objective way to determine the neurological foundation of sex differences in intelligence and temperament?
Phrenology
35
Franz Joseph Gall introduced which method that was used to examine deficiencies in the brain by external examination of the cranium?
Cranioscopy
36
What are the basic tenants of the variability hypothesis?
Variation has positive value because greatness could not be achieved without variation, and men have more variability than women (both mentally and physically)
Variability is necessary for evolutionary function because of the diversity of genes
37
What are the basic tenants of the variability hypothesis?
Variation has positive value because greatness could not be achieved without variation, and men have more variability than women (both mentally and physically)
Variability is necessary for evolutionary function because of the diversity of genes
38
Describe the concept of maternal instinct
The systems dominant in women caused her greatest attributes to lie in the moral sphere in the form of love, patience, and chastity. In the intellectual sphere, she was not equally blessed, because it is her highest happiness to be a mother
39
True or False: the variability hypothesis was unquestioningly accepted, while the maternal instinct discussion was quite controversial.
False. The maternal instinct was popularly accepted, while the variability hypothesis gained attention because of an argument.
40
What is structuralism?
Breaking down consciousness into individualistic components, helps us to better understand phenomena. (“we can perform tests to understand things”)
Positivistic philosophy of science (if you’re going to break things down, you’d better have a purpose)
41
What are some examples of structuralist methods?
Phrenology, brain size, reaction times
42
What is functionalism?
A more holistic point of view that looks at the effects of things; what they do and why. A constructivist philosophy of science
43
In which school of thought was Titchener?
Structuralism
44
In which school of thought was Angell?
Functionalism
45
True or false: Titchener was a sensationalist as opposed to a volitionist.
True
46
How did Titchener criticize science?
He said it was doing a disservice by engaging in “foggy ideas” and using metaphors. He was against imprecise terms.
47
What was Titchener’s view on correlation of causation?
Everything is so intervaried and we can’t isolate a linear causation; thus we are better off looking at correlational factors
48
What did Angell say was necessary to include in science to make it useful?
Metaphysics, cosmology, and discussions of philosophy
49
What was Angell’s view on the job of the mind?
The mind’s job is to create necessary tasks for evolution and get needs met from the environment
50
What were Angell’s three main concepts?
Mental Operations
Psyschophysical mind-body revival
Voluntarism
51
What are some statistics that support that the media portrays mental illness with too much violence?
The offence rate of mentally ill characters is 10 fold that of other television characters. One in four mentally ill characters kill someone, half are portrayed as hurting others
52
How do television portrayals show mental illness in a discouraging light?
Frequently portray mentally ill characters as disenfranchised, with no family connections, no occupation, and no social identity.
Camera shots also film them differently with close up or extreme shots reinforcing their isolation.
53
How does mental illness in the news perpetuate stigma?
- The news is the most frequently identified source of mental health information. Yet they represent mental illness in a way that is largely inaccurate and negative with an emphasis on violent, delusional, and irrational behavior to sensationalize content.
- News items also reinforce cultural stereotypes using narrative frames that transform neutral material to negative or violent depictions.
- Missing first person accounts of mental illness and the perspective of mental health professionals, less than 15% include quotes from psychiatric experts
54
What are the consequences of the negative depictions?
- Socialize youth of expectations for interactions with others with mental illness and for themselves if they were to be mentally ill
- Increase public fear of violence from people with mental illness
- Increases skepticism of mental health treatment
- Justifies coercive actions towards mentally ill and prevents them social opportunities
- Intense emotionality evoked from negative content overrides other positive or neutral sources of information
- Hurts emotionally those with mental health issues and their families
- Promote distrust of patients towards mental health professionals, lessen treatment adherence
55
What could be done to improve negative depictions in the media?
- Use media as an ally for anti stigma efforts
- Advocate for certain media agents to change with public pressure
- Integrate clinical psychiatry/psychology training with mass media training
- Build skills for mentally ill to be spokespeople
56
How did the end of the Industrial Revolution influence “The Birth of the New Applied Psychology?"
• Changes in urbanization and immigration meant changes in the dynamics of the American family
(mandatory school attendance = psychology’s application to education)
57
Briefly, who was Lightner Witmer?
• Used psychology to “treat” a boy who was having spelling problems, and as a result founded a psychology clinic at Penn; founded the journal The Psychology clinic; usually acknowledged as the founder of clinical psychology and school psychology
58
What type of children did Witmer see in his clinic?
• Children who showed an inability to progress in school (majority of children referred from school; issues such as spelling and writing)
59
How did Witmer believe Psychology was going to progress?
• Application! “The progress of psychology, as of every other science, will be determined by the value and amount of its contributions to the advancement of the human race.” Bridging the gap between research and clinical.
60
Describe Witmer’s 4-point outline on Practical work on psychology
• 1. Investigate mental development in school children through statistical and clinical methods;
2. Psychological clinics supplemented by a training school to treat “retardation or physical defects” interfering with school;
3. Offer practical work and observation for those interested in the profession;
4. Train students as “psychological experts” to examine/treat delayed children
61
T/F: Witmer believed clinical psychology and medicine, sociology, and pedagogy were all very closely related
True
62
T/F: Witmer believed that mental and moral degeneracy is in part a result of the environment
True
63
What is Witmer’s genetic psychology?
He moved the psychologists frame of reference from genetic to congenital, to include the possibility for environment in heredity
64
What did Witmer believe clinical psychologists should be primarily interested in?
The individual child (delayed children, “normal” children, and gifted children)
65
What did Witmer’s diagnostic data include in the clinic?
Medical examinations, social case studies, and mental “before and after” tests
66
What was Witmer’s view on Intelligence tests?
He was skeptical! He believed they tested performance, not intelligence
67
Why does John O’Donnell believe Witmer has attracted little historical attention?
History usually attends to the victor, and Witmer failed to achieve psychology professional hegemony over the “problem child”
68
In an era of institutional weakness for clinical psychology (1920s), what did clinical psychologists claim authority over?
The ability to administer psychological tests
69
Briefly, who was Walter Dill Scott?
First American psychologist to study business and advertising; wrote The Theory of Advertising; developed “Selection tests” for occupations in sales and military jobs; only psychologist to receive a Distinguished Service Medal
70
What did Scott think about the advertising controversy on influencing the consumer?
The power of suggestion in advertisements should tell the consumer what to do
71
Briefly, who was Leta Hollingsworth?
Co-founder of the American Association of Clinical Psychology; proposed the PsyD!
72
What were Leta Hollingsworth's views on clinical psychology?
Clinical psychology was more advanced than other areas in psychology: preparation was offered in several large universities, the demand was steady and increasing, a national association was formed, and some states had legal standard for practicing clinical psychology
73
What did Leta Hollingsworth believe would help develop clinical psychology?
Certification! First certify institutions (and publish a list) where training can be made available, then allow the certified institutions to certify individuals. Standardize the courses of study. Eventually implement legal certification.
74
What did Leta Hollingsworth believe was the ideal clinical psychology degree?
She advocated for 1 degree, the Doctor’s degree of Psychology, PsyD, which should not involve intensive research but involve practice in application
75
What was Leta Hollingsworth’s 2-fold purpose of certification standardization?
1. To assure the best possible quality of service to the public;
2. To protect those who are able to willing to undertake thorough preparation against the competition of those who are unable to undergo the same training
76
What were some driving forces that led to the development of school psychology?
1. The value placed on childhood/status of children;
2. Development of general and special public education;
3. Experimental and professional developments in psychology and education
77
What changes occurred after the 1920 compulsory school attendance law?
Days in the school year increased, average number of days attended increased, and enrollment increased.
Public education required the expertise of school practitioners in areas such as attendance, guidance, health, psychology social work, and special education
78
Briefly discuss how school systems managed academic, behavioral, and health problems in the 1920s:
The first school psychologist was created. Witmer’s clinics spread quickly to many school districts. It was common for large districts to employ a school physician for problems complicated by health.
79
What kinds of cases in the school system were refereed to Witmer’s clinics?
Young children suspected of giftedness, mental retardation, or academic failure. Older children concerned with delinquency and truancy
80
What was the most important aspect of school psychology’s history?
Psychologically trained personnel began taking full-time employment positions in the school district
81
T/F: School psychology was well-regulated at the turn of the century
False. Training programs were sparse, no state or national level organizations, no codes of practice, and no credentialing guidelines
82
Who was Harry S. Hollingsworth?
He ran the study on the influence of caffeine on mental and motor efficiency for Coca-Cola Company
83
What type of research study was the Caffeine Study?
A classic double blind experiment
84
How did Harry Hollingsworth state he avoided being influenced by Coca Cola, since they funded his study?
Blind and double-blind conditions. Measurements were made and recoded by “blind” assistants who did not know case vs control. Preparing results for publication were undertaken on his “own initiative,” and refusing to conduct the study “would have been nothing less than an evasion of scientific duty”
85
What were the 5 listed purposes of the Caffeine Study?
1. The effect of caffeine on a wide range of mental and motor processes;
2. To see how age, sex, weight, idiosyncrasy, and previous caffeine habits were influential dependent on amount and time of dose;
3. Influence of caffeine on general health, sleep, and food habits;
4. Value and adaptability of simple tests in pharmaco-dynamic research
5. Accumulate data on fatigue, efficient, limit, and sex differences of subjects (not included in this report)
86
Who were the Caffeine Study participants?
16 people engaged for full time for 40 days, mostly all day
87
What happened during the first week of the Caffeine Study?
Participants were given control doses: “sugar of milk” doses daily to get adapted to the experiment and remove caffeine from the body
88
How were the Caffeine Study participants divided into 4 groups?
1. No caffeine throughout the experiment;
2. Alternated taking caffeine and sugar of milk every other 3 days, always the same amount;
3. Alternated caffeine and sugar of milk every other day at lunch, always the same amount;
4. Alternated caffeine and sugar of milk every other day 2-3 hours after lunch
89
How did the experimenters incorporate soda into the Caffeine study?
Caffeine taken along with food substance (in the form of syrup contained in soda drinks), to compare syrup combination to no caffeine syrup
90
How were participants assessed in the Caffeine Study?
Each individual kept a “daily health book” recording health and moods
Participants answered a questionnaire, and
Tests (mostly mental measurements in tasks of perception, attention etc. And some motor tests)
91
Briefly, what were the Caffeine study conclusions?
1. Caffeine, a mild stimulant, increases the capacity for both muscular and mental work, without there being any evidence (with moderate doses) of reaction leading to deleterious effects in mental or motor performance. There is no traces of secondary depression or reaction;
2. The presence of food in the stomach reduces the influence;
3. May lead to poorer sleep quality
92
Why did the Caffeine Study take place in the first place?
Federal authority claimed Coca-Cola was selling a beverage that was mislabeled and injurious to health because it contained a deleterious ingredient (caffeine), and they needed evidence that there were no behavioral effects of caffeine on human beings.
93
What is one reason Benjamin et al. believes Harry Hollingsworth accepted the Coca-Cola study offer?
Money! Hollingsworth clearly stated he needed the money.
94
Who was Harvey Wiley?
Established the FDA and testified before Congress that caffeine was a poison and a habit-forming drug, believing that Coca-Cola was a serious health threat
95
What did the court decide regarding the effects of caffeine?
The government’s case was invalid, but whether or not caffeine was a substance injurious to health was never decided in the original court case
96
What was Coca-Colas reaction after the court decided the government’s case against Coca-Cola was invalid?
Coca-Cola created advertising pamphlets stating that Coca-Cola and caffeine were intend safe to drink (which was not proven truthful in court). Therefore, Coca-Cola was brought back to the Supreme Court and Coca-Cola changed its formula, reducing the caffeine content by half.
97
What is the purpose of the Hornstein article?
To analyze the complex nature of psychoanalysis threatening experimental psychology at the turn of the century and beyond. It also discusses the experimental psychologists responses to psychoanalysis.
98
In the Hornstein article, what was considered the “new psychology?”
Experimental psychology – using measurements, devices, and tests to create a truly scientific approach to the mind
99
Why did experimental psychologists have such a problem with psychoanalysis?
Psychoanalysis threatened to eclipse experimental psychology entirely and psychologists were not having it.
Psychologists believed that psychoanalysis was not scientifically sound; it was based on “radical” subjective interpretations. Oh helllllll no.
100
What were the experimental psychologists’ initial reactions to psychoanalysis?
They basically ignored it and “retreated into positivism”
101
After the experimental psychologists’ initial reaction, what was their later response to psychoanalysis?
- They put psychoanalytic concepts to experimental tests and only retained those concepts that qualified as “scientific.”
- They reinstated psychologists as the authority over psychology and restored “objective” criteria as the basis for making psychological claims
- Allowed psychoanalytic concepts into mainstream psychology, which helped make psychology a more flexible and broad-based discipline
102
Are there any innocent players in the dispute between experimental psychologists and psychoanalysts?
No; both parties behaved badly towards each other
103
What was the dispute between experimental psychologists and psychoanalysts?
Which field would ultimately dictate the ground rules for a science of the mind.
104
When did the struggle begin between experimental psychologists and psychoanalysts?
1890’s
105
How did psychoanalysts define science?
- It had nothing to do with method, controlling variables or counting things. If something was true, then it was to be considered scientific.
106
Why did experimental psychologists initially deem psychoanalysis as benign to the profession?
They viewed psychoanalysis as another “mind cure” that flashed on the scene in the 1890’s, just like Christian Science. They didn’t take it seriously.
107
What actions moved psychoanalysis more into the spotlight?
1. Books by Freud, Jung, and A.A. Brill were being regularly reviewed in The Journal of Abnormal Psychology.
2. They “embarked on a systematic campaign to win Americans to their cause” -
3. If anyone wrote an erroneous statement of their theory, they would shoot back a quick critique/correction
4. They ignored criticisms published by experimental psychologists
108
What did the experimental psychologists eventually do in response to psychoanalysts’ movement in 1916?
- They wrote nasty articles, letters, and essentially started name calling
- They attempted to widen the gap between psychoanalysts and psychology by narrowing the field to include only phenomena that could be studied “objectively”
- They critiqued the hell out of psychoanalysis and published their findings
109
Who was Edwin Garrigues Boring?
- A self-acknowledged dean of experimental psychology
110
What significant occurrence happened with Boring?
- He entered psychoanalytic treatment under the guise that he was studying the relation between the two fields. In reality he was really depressed and wanted help
111
What was the outcome of Boring’s psychoanalytic treatment?
- He spent 10 months in treatment and it failed; he was still depressed.
- 5 years after treatment he hoped that he would get better but still nothing.
- In hopes of finding some answers he asked the Journal of Abnormal Psychology to locate well-known psychologists who had been analyzed and to publish their accounts in a special issue.
- Most of these articles stated that psychoanalysis didn’t work, except for Franz Alexander who wrote in favor of psychoanalysis.
- Alexander’s article fell on closed ears; psychologists put little stock in personal testimony
112
T/F: by the 1940’s psychoanalysis became so popular that it threatened to eclipse psychology entirely.
True; journalists seemed oblivious to the differences between the two fields
113
In the 1940’s, what solution did experimental psychologists finally come up with to prove that psychoanalysts’ claims weren’t true?
- They were going to determine which psychoanalytic concepts were valid (if any) through carefully controlled experiments
- They conducted hundreds of studies; psychoanalysts did not have the resources to keep track of the results.
114
What were the results of all of the studies conducted on psychoanalysis?
- Some concepts were valid, others were not.
| - There was so much to sift through that objective review was lost entirely and cautious reviews vanished completely.
115
What did Watson and other behaviorists do in response to psychoanalysis?
They co-opted and appropriated it; relabeled psychoanalytic terms into behaviorist terms
116
What influence did introductory textbook writers have in the experimental-psychoanalytical feud?
Textbook writers assimilated psychoanalytic concepts into mainstream psychology without mentioning their origins; they appropriated psychoanalysis
117
When APA surveyed its members in 1954 about who influenced them into the field of psychology, who was the most common person named?
Freud
118
True or False: Sigmund Freud’s one and only visit it the United States was to the Clark Conference.
True
119
Who was the only American invited to speak at the Clark conference?
E.B. Titchener
120
What case was the first and most popular case in regards to psychoanalysis?
The case of Anna O (a.k.a. Bertha)
121
Which psychologist actually treated Anna O?
Josef Breur
122
What is psychoanalysis (in terms of Breur and Freud)?
The process in which a person is able to be “cured” by their hysteria through having a person relive their experiences and talking about them in a natural or hypnotic state.
123
What is catharsis?
A way that symptoms are reduced through the release of the patient’s pent-up anxiety.
124
Why was Freud interested in the case of Anna O.?
Because he was interested in the promise of the method of catharsis treating hysteria
125
What was Jean-Martin Charcot able to find in his research?
He found that when under hypnosis, individuals could be made to exhibit the physical symptoms of hysteria. This meant that conditions of the body could be altered by the conditions of the mind.
126
What is free association?
Process in which people are able to talk spontaneously about anything that came to mind. Freud used this process since he found it difficult to hypnotize is clients
127
According to Freud, what is the seduction theory?
He found that stories of sexual seduction were not actual encounters, but were fantasies of desired encounters.
128
What is psychic reality?
This occurred when patients found that reality was too difficult to face and the mind would create its own version of reality.
129
According to Freud, what was the chief goal of psychoanalysis?
It was to expose the psychic reality for what it was and help the patient understand and accept the actual reality.
130
What is a Freudian Slip?
An unintentional error regarded as revealing subconscious feelings.
131
What book of Freud illustrated how Freudian slips, simple mistakes, and temporary losses of memory?
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life.
132
What was the main idea behind Freud’s first lecture at the Clark conference?
Explaining the case of Anna O. and the use of catharsis in treating hysteria.
133
What is double personality?
When several mental groupings are independent of each other and “know they exist”. There is a splitting of the consciousness.
134
What is consciousness?
When a division of personality consciousness remains constantly bound up with one of the two states.
135
What is unconsciousness?
When a division of personality consciousness DOES NOT remain constantly bound up with one of the two states.
136
True or False: Most psychology textbooks of the 1920’s and early 1930’s paid little or no attention to psychoanalysis.
True
137
Who was said to be the founder of behaviorism?
Watson
138
True or False: psychology was seen as mental states in the eyes of Watson?
False: it was seen as a science of behavior
139
True or False: Watson believed that if it was not directly observable, it had no place in psychology
True
140
What was Watson’s perceived goal of psychology?
Prediction and control of behavior
141
Watson had doubts about the study of which of the following:
A) Manipulation
B) Behavior
C) Introspection
C) Introspection
142
If the field of psychology did not switch entirely to the theory of ______________, Watson believed it would fail completely
Behaviorism
143
Describe the main points of Watson’s Behaviorist Manifesto
- Watson described the importance and relevance of behaviorism to the field of psychology, and downplayed all cognitions and mental states as having no meaning or place in psychology.
- He also strongly believed that psychology would fail if it did not discard everything that had to do with consciousness and replace everything it stood for with behaviorism.
- It is arguably one of the most important articles in the history of psychology, but at the time was not received well by many and actually upset a lot of theorists (especially in the structuralist and functionalist camps).
144
How was Watson’s Behaviorist Manifesto received?
- Some theorists were very upset by it, but also provided constructive criticism with some main points:
- The study of behavior by objective methods was important, only if that behavior was understood not only as mechanical but as the self related to the environment, cognitions, and introspection as well (“don’t throw out the baby with the bath water” argument)
- Many expressed a strong desire to expand the study of psychology to relate to needs of people in “real world” events (with regard to the lack of concern with individuals life experiences)
- Some accepted the notion of behaviorism, but questioned Watson’s narrow definition of it.
- Tichner argued that Watson was trying to create a technology rather than a science
145
Behaviorism was meant to replace what two other forms of psychology?
Structuralism and Functionalism
146
What was one of Watson’s main contributions to the field of psychology?
He crystalized previously scattered ideas of behaviorism from the past into a systematic formulation that was new
147
Which behaviorist was most concerned with classical conditioning?
Pavlov
148
Who focused on the integration of behavior and cognitions?
Tolman
149
Tolman believed that cognitions played a large role in explaining _________________.
Behaviors and behavioral outcomes
150
True or False: Tolman’s theory recognized the existence of intervening variables?
True
151
Define intervening variables
Processes within the organism that intervene between the stimulus and response (e.g., cognitions)
152
Who was considered the most lawful behaviorist due to his development of many testable hypotheses and because he based his theory off of mathematical form?
Hull
153
True or Falst: Hull began stating a series of postulates from which he could derive testable hypotheses, known as: hypothetico-deductive method?
True
154
Hull used reinforcement as a key concept of his theory, which operated from a means of drive reduction. Define drive reduction
Drives respond to bodily needs (e.g., thirst); when drives are activated, behaviors were initiated, which would lead to the reduction in those drives, and would ultimately reinforce that drive/behavior reaction cycle.
This strengthening was referred to as habit strength: the more you give into your drives and respond to them by fulfilling them with a behavior, the habit strength increases strength of association between a particular stimulus response
155
Which theorist saw no need for cognitions or explanations of behavior that applied to inner events?
Skinner
156
True or False: Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences?
True
157
How did Skinner define behavior?
The movement of an organism or of its parts in a frame of reference provided by the organism itself or by various external objects or fields of force
158
Who created the “Baby in a Box” in an effort to lighten parenting duties for new parents?
Skinner
159
True or False: The process of conditioning is defined by the operation of the simultaneous presentation of reinforcing stimulus and other stimulus?
True
160
Describe operant conditioning:
Roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response
161
Who stated: “psychology should be void of all mentalistic terms”?
Skinner
162
Skinner was considered the most successful psychologist to utilize prediction and control, ultimately by coining the term operant conditioning. Define operant conditioning:
Form of response→stimulus learning (focused on how consequences affected behavior), utilizing reinforcements to increase certain behaviors, and punishers to decrease certain behaviors
Neobehaviorism = cause/effect rather than prediction and control
