Exam 2 Flashcards
(225 cards)
0
Q
Do cells require a microscope to see them?
A
Nearly all cells do
1
Q
Are cells extremely diverse?
A
Yes
2
Q
What is diversity?
A
- Shape
- Size
- Function
3
Q
Give an example of the diversity of cells.
A
•sperm, egg cell
4
Q
Our bodies are composed of how many cell types?
A
They are composed of several hundred cell types.
5
Q
Give examples of different cell types.
A
- Nerve cells
- Muscle cells
- Gland cells
- Bone cells
6
Q
What do nerve cells do?
A
Conduct impulses
7
Q
What do muscle cells do?
A
Contract
8
Q
What do gland cells do?
A
Secrete hormones
9
Q
What do bone cells do?
A
Support
10
Q
What are all organisms composed of?
A
Cells
11
Q
What is needed to see most cells?
A
A microscope
12
Q
What are the microscopes used to see cells?
A
- Light microscope
- Transmission electron microscope
- Scanning electron microscope
13
Q
What is a light microscope?
A
Reveals inside of cells details
14
Q
What is a transmission electron microscope?
A
Reveal inside of cells in greater details
15
Q
What is a scanning electron microscope?
A
Reveals surface features in greater details
16
Q
Why must cells remain small?
A
cells must remain small in order to have an adequate surface area per cell volume
17
Q
What are the two main types of cells?
A
- Prokaryotes and
2. Eukaryotes
18
Q
What do all cells have?
A
- Plasma membrane
- Cytoplasm
- Genetic material
19
Q
How is a nucleus different in a Eukaryotic cell than a Prokaryotic cell?
A
Because the nucleus is bounded by a double-membrane
20
Q
What type of cell is a bacteria cell?
A
A bacteria cell is a prokaryote
21
Q
What do prokaryotic cells possess?
A
- plasma membrane
- cell wall
- capsule
- DNA in nucleoid zone
- Ribosomes
6, Apendages
22
Q
List the parts of an appendage of a cell.
A
- Fimbriae
- conjugation pilus
- flagellum
23
Q
What does a fimbriae do?
A
attachment
24
what does a conjugation pilus do?
asexual reproduction
25
What does a flagellum do?
movement
26
What does the plasma membrane mark?
It marks the boundary between the outside and inside of a cell
27
What is the plasma membrane in prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells?
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer
28
What does a phospholipid bilayer do?
It regulates the passage of molecules and ions into and out of the cell
29
Can the phospholipid bilayer be likened to a sandwich?
yes
30
What does the fluid-mosaic model of the membrane structure show?
That the membrane proteins form a mosaic (varying) pattern
31
What is mosaic?
varying
32
Why fluid?
substances always moving in and out
33
Why mosaic?
1. Different displays of patterns of the structural material
| 2. many different structural materials
34
How many types of embedded proteins are there?
6-types
35
List the 6 types of proteins.
1. Channel proteins
2. Transport proteins
3. cell recognition proteins
4. receptor proteins
5. Enzymatic proteins
6. Junction proteins
36
What are Channel proteins?
1. Allows for selective movement
| 2. determines what enters and leaves the cell
37
What are transport proteins?
convey Na+ and K+ across nerve cell membrane
38
What is an ion?
If an element has a charge
39
What is Na+ called?
sodium ion
40
What are cell recognition proteins?
1. are glycoproteins
2. they distinguish between human cells and other organisms
3. they protect from pathogenic invasion
41
What are receptor proteins?
1. the hormone insulin binds to a receptor protein in liver cells
2. and cause these cells to store glucose
42
What are enzymatic proteins?
1. metabolic reactions
2. degradative reactions
3. synthetic reactions
43
What is an enzyme?
speed up metabolic reactions
44
What are junction proteins?
1. assist cell-to-cell adhesion and communication
| 2. prevents separation and tearing of cells
45
Are Eukaryotic cells larger than Prokaryotic cells?
yes
46
What are organelles?
double membrane-bound structure in plant and animal cells
47
List some organelle's that are in cells.
1. nucleus
2. vesicles
3. mitochondrion
4. Rough endoplasmic reticulum-RER
5. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum-SER
6. Lysosome
7. Golgi apparatus
48
What does RER stand for?
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
49
What does SER stand for?
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
50
What is a nucleus?
houses chromatin, which contains DNA-the genetic material
51
What is a nucleolus?
1. is contained within the nucleus
| 2. and produces ribosomes
52
What are ribosomes?
1. In the cytoplasm
| 2. Synthesizes proteins
53
What organelles makes up the endomembrane system?
1. RER
| 2. SER
54
What is RER?
Protein synthesis
55
What is SER?
1. synthesizes lipids
| 2. and form transport vesicles
56
What is the Golgi apparatus?
1. receives transport vesicles
2. and modifies, sorts, and repackages protein into transport vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane as secretion occurs
57
What are lysosomes?
1. produced by Golgi Apparatus;
| 2. Contain enzymes for intracellular digestion
58
What are vacuoles?
larger membranous sacs specialized in-storage, contraction, digestion, etc.
59
What are vesicles?
smaller membranous sacs- transportation
60
What are Chloroplasts?
1. Capture sunlight energy
2. Carry out photosynthesis
3. produces carbohydrates
61
What organism does photosynthesis occur in?
Only occurs in plants
62
What are carbohydrates?
energy
63
What is a mitochondrion?
1. breaks down carbohydrates,
| 2. produces ATP (adenosinetriphosphate) during cellular respiration
64
What is ATP?
adenosinetriphosphate
65
How do consumers produce energy?
consumers/animals produce energy during cellular respiration
66
What is a cytoskeleton?
1. maintains cell shape
| 2. and allows the cell and organelles to move
67
What are the structural components?
1. microtubules,
2. intermediate filaments
3. actin filaments
68
What are motor proteins?
1. allows cellular movement to occur
| 2. and moves vesicles and organelles within the cell
69
give an example of motor proteins.
myosin (interacts with actin)
70
What are centrioles?
are short cylinders of microtubules
71
Where are centrioles in animals and protists?
2 centrioles lie outside nucleus
72
Do plant cells have centrioles?
Plant cells lack centrioles
73
What is the function of centrioles+ centrosomes?
1. produce spindle fibers
| 2. cell division
74
what are cilia and flagella?
hair-like projections: locomotion
75
What is the cylindrical construction of cilia and flagella?
1. cylindrical construction:
| - 9+2 pattern of microtubules
76
What do plant cells posess?
1. a permeable cell wall,
| 2. and cellulose as its main component
77
What do some plants have?
a secondary (2*) cell wall
78
Lignin + cellulose = ?
rigidity
79
What is the plasmodesmata?
1. membrane-lined channels in cell wall;
| 2. materials movement through an opening from cell to cell
80
What is an extracellular matrix?
1. Proteins and polysaccharides;
| 2. support and communication between cells
81
What are adhesion junctions and tight junctions?
hold cells together
82
what are gap junctions?
allow passage of small molecules between cells
83
How do plant cells get energy?
through photosynthesis
84
What does mitochrondrial =?
animal (cellular respiration)
85
what does photosynthesis use?
chloroplasts
86
What does photosynthesis transform solar energy into?
the chemical energy of a carbohydrate
87
What are some photosynthetic organisms?
1. plants
2. algae
3. cyanobacteria
88
What do photosynthetic organisms produce?
enormous amounts of carbohydrates
89
What do photosynthetic organisms have?
chloroplasts
90
How do photosynthetic organisms sustain themselves and all other living organisms?
(few exceptions-produce energy via chemical means)
91
Where do most food chains lead back to?
plants
92
What are producers?
plants
93
What do producers do?
1. synthesize carbohydrates,
2. feed themselves,
3. feed consumers
94
What must consumers take in?
preformed organic molecules
95
What is coal?
1. bodies of plants
| 2. we burn coal today
96
How long did it take to form coal?
hundreds of thousands of years
97
Is coal fossil fuel?
yes
98
What is used as fuel?
wood of trees
99
How is alcohol produced?
fermentation of plant materials
100
What is alcohol used to fuel?
1. automobiles directly
| 2. or as a gasoline additive
101
What is alcohol used for?
1. human consumption,
| 2. automotive
102
What color is photosynthesis?
greenish
103
What makes up a leaf?
1. veins
| 2. stomata
104
What do the veins absorb?
H20
105
What does the stomata absorb?
CO2
106
What does H2O and CO2 diffuse into?
Mesophyll
107
What does the mesophyll produce?
OH2
108
What element is in the cells in leaves?
CO2
109
What is in the chlorophyll?
Chloroplasts
110
What does the chlorophyll do?
1. Captures sunlight energy
| 2. Solar energy absorption
111
What is needed for photosynthesis?
1. CO2
2. H2O
3. + solar E
112
What is in a leaf?
1. veins
| 2. stomata
113
What is inside the veins?
mesophyll
114
What is inside the mesophyll?
Chlorophyll
115
What is inside the chlorophyll?
Chloroplasts
116
What does the green portion of plants do?
particularly the leaves, carry on photosynthesis
117
What does CO2 in the air enter?
The many spaces of mesophyll tissue through small openings
118
What is the stomata?
the many spaces of mesophyll tissue in small openings
119
What do the roots of plants do?
1. absorb water,
2. which moves in the vascular tissue up the stem to leaves
3. where it exits at leaf veins
120
Where does CO2 + H2O diffuse to?
1. mesophyll cells
| 2. and then into chloroplasts
121
What are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis?
the chloroplasts
122
What is the stroma?
a double membrane surrounds a fluid
123
What does a 3rd membrane system within the stroma forms?
flattened sacs
124
What are thylakoids?
1. flattened sacs
| 2. are stacks of grana
125
What is the space within each thylakoid connected to?
all other thylakoid spaces
126
What is a thylakoid space?
thylakoid spaces form an inner compartment within the chloroplast
127
Where does the chlorophyll and other pigments reside?
within the membranes of the thylakoids
128
What do these pigments within the thylakoid absorb?
solar energy
129
What is solar energy?
the energy that drives photosynthesis
130
What do the complexes within the thylakoid membrane do?
that convert solar energy into chemical form useable by the enzymes in the stroma
131
What is the stroma?
1. the stroma is an enzyme-rich solution
2. in which CO2 is the 1st attached to an organic compound
3. and then reduced to a carbohydrate using the chemical energy provided by the thylakoid membranes
132
what is a carbohydrate?
It is the only source of energy for most organisms on earth
133
What produces the carbohydrate?
the chloroplasts
134
After the carbohydrate is metabolized by consumers, what happens?
they release CO2 into the air
135
What happens to CO2?
1. the same CO2 enters leaves
| 3. and is converted to a carbohydrate
136
What is the relationship between producers and consumers?
it is an intrinsic part of the intricate web of life on planed earth
137
What are producers?
plants
138
What are consumers?
animals
139
What does the photosynthetic process produce?
it produces food and oxygen
140
Where does photosynthesis take place?
in a chloroplast
141
What is the photosynthetic process?
1. it is a process in which water is oxidized (split)
| 2. and CO2 is reduced using solar energy
142
how many versions of the photosynthesis equation are there?
there are two versions
143
What is the short version of the photosynthesis equation?
Solar E + CO2 + H2O = (CH2O) + O2
144
What is the long version of the photosynthesis equation?
Photo E + 6CO2 + 6H2O + C6H12O6 + 6O2
145
What is the name of C6H12O6?
glucose
146
What is another name for glucose?
carbohydrate
147
What does photo + synthesis = ?
1. Photosynthesis;
2. 2 processes;
3. requiring 2 sets of reactions
148
What are the two sets of reactions in photosynthesis?
1. light reactions
| 2. calvin cycle reactions
149
Where do light reactions take place at?
thylakoid membranes
150
What is the function of chlorophyll in light reactions?
1. absorbs solar E
| 2. and energizes electrons
151
What is ATP produced from?
ADP + PO4 = ATP
152
What helps to produce ATP?
with the help of an electron transport chain
153
What does ETC stand for?
Electron Transport Chain
154
What is NADP+?
1. an enzyme helper accept electrons
| 2. and becomes NADPH
155
What does NADP+ stand for?
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phospate
156
What is formed from light reactions?
1. ATP
| 2. and NADPH are formed
157
Where do calvin cycle reactions take place at?
in the stroma
158
What happens to CO2 during the calvin cycle?
CO2 uptake is taken up by one of the molecules in the cycle
159
what does ATP and NADPH from light reactions do?
ATP and NADPH reduce (converted) CO2 to a carbohydrate
160
What does a carbohydrate use?
It uses ATP and NADPH
161
What is oxidation in organisms?
removal of H-atoms
162
What is oxidation in nonliving things?
addition of o2
163
What is cellular respiration?
production of energy in cells
164
What is required for your muscles to contract?
ATP molecules
165
What is produced during cellular respiration?
ATP molecules
166
What does cellular respiration require the participation of?
the mitochondrion
167
What does the mitochondrion in the cell take in?
1. it takes in o2,
| 2. and releases co2 just as we breathe
168
what does just as we breathe in/out =?
cellular respiration
169
Why do we breathe?
because of cellular respiration
170
What is a fundamental part of cellular respiration?
oxidation of substrates
171
What does oxidation in living things =?
removal of H-atoms from a molecule
172
What happens during cellular respiration?
1. H-atoms removed from glucose
| 2. and glucose products are transferred to O-atoms, forming CO2 + H2O
173
What is the formula for cellular respiration?
C6H12O6 + 6O2---> 6CO2 + 6H2O + (ATP)
174
What molecules are involved during oxidation?
between C6H12O6 and CO2
175
What molecules are involved in reduction?
between 6O2 and 6H2O
176
Is photosynthesis and respiration similar to each other?
they are opposites
177
What happens to C6H12O6 during cellular respiration?
It's broken down
178
What happens during cellular respiration?
1. carbohydrates are oxidized to release energy
2. oxygen is consumed
3. CO2 and H2O; formed as by-products
179
What is formed during photosynthesis?
C6H12O6
180
What does photosynthesis use CO2 for?
CO2 is reduced to form carbohydrate
181
What does cellular respiration use carbohydrates for?
1. carbohydrate is oxidized
| 2. and CO2 formed
182
What are the phases of complete glucose breakdown?
1. glycolysis
2. preparatory reaction
3. citric acid cycle or krebs cycle
4. The electron transport chain
183
What happens in complete glucose breakdown?
1. in a cell, glucose is broken down slowly
| 2. hydrogen atoms are removed bit-by-bit; it allows energy to be captured and used to make ATP molecules
184
Where does glycolysis take place at?
cytoplasm
185
What happens in glycolysis?
* It breaks down glucose into:
1. 2 pyruvate molecules
2. 2 ATPs
3. NADH- used for further ATP production
186
What happens in preparatory reaction?
1. matrix of mitochondria
2. no ATP molecules are produced
3. enzymes produced
4. pyruvate oxidized ---> NADH +CO2
187
What is an enzyme?
1. biological catalysm
2. mostly proteins
3. speed up chemical reactions
4. lower activation energy
188
What is another name for the citric acid cycle?
krebs cycle
189
Where does the citric acid cycle take place at?
matrix of mitochondrion
190
What happens during the citric acid cycle?
1. oxidation produces: NADH, FADH2
2. CO2 released
3. 2 ATP per glucose molecule
191
What are FAD and NAD?
coenzymes
192
What does NADH stand for?
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
193
What does FADH2 stand for?
Flavin adenine dinucleotide
194
What does ETC stand for?
Electron Transport Chain
195
What does the Electron Transport Chain do?
1. Electron carriers in the cistae of the mitochondron
2. NADH and FADH2: give up electrons to the chain
3. energy is released and captured as the electrons move from a higher energy to a lower energy state
4. released energy is used to produce ATP
5. O2= final electron acceptor: combines with H+ to produce: OH ---> H+ + O2 = OH2
6. 34 ATP molecules formed; 2 ATPs are used up for a net total of 32 ATPs
196
How many total ATPs are made in the complete glucose breakdown phases?
36 total ATPs produced
197
What is cellular reproduction?
division of cells
198
What is the basics of cellular reproduction?
1. cellular reproduction occurs when:
a. growth and
b. repair of tissues take place
2. It's also necessary to both
a. asexual and
b. sexual reproduction
199
How many chromosomes does a human have?
46
200
What happens in a human after fertilization?
a single cell becomes a multicellular organism by cellular reproduction
201
cellular reproduction involves what two processes?
1. growth
| 2. cell division
202
What happens in the growth of a cell?
1. cell grows
| 2. and doubles its contents
203
What happens in cell division?
1. parent's cell content are split among 2-daughter cells;
| 2. one half of cytoplasm and DNA are passed onto each daughter cell
204
What happens in the mitotic stage?
1. Nuclear division-
2. PMAT cell divide-
3. cytokinesis
205
What are the 3 stages of Interphase?
1. G1
2. S
3. G2
206
What happens at the Interphase stage?
preparation to divide
207
What is another name for G1?
Gap 1
208
What happens during G1?
1. cell doubles its organelles and
| 2. accumulates materials needed for DNA replication
209
What happens in S-phase?
cell replicates DNA
210
What is another name for G2?
gap 2
211
What happens in G2?
cell synthesizes protein
212
What are the telling signs of mitosis in cells?
1. 2 daughter cells produced from an original parent cell
| 2. daughter cell= same number of chromosomes as parent cell
213
What are some facts about the mitotic stage?
1. consists of mitosis to cytokinesis
| 2. daughter nuclei genetically identical to parent nucleus and to each other
214
What is another name for cell division?
1. mitosis
| 2. and cytokinesis
215
What does cell division include?
1. mitosis
2. and cytokinesis
3. or cytoplasmic division
216
What are the phases of mitosis?
1. prophase
2. metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
5. cytokinesis
217
What happens in prophase?
1. chromosomes condense
2. spindles begin to assemble
3. nucleolus disappears; nuclear membrane breaks down
4. spindle attach to centromere of chromosome
218
What happens at metaphase?
1. chromosomes aligned at the spindle equator
| 2. midway between the spindle poles
219
What happens at anaphase?
1. sister chromatids separate and become daughter chromosomes
2. microtubules attached to chromosomes disassemble
3. each pole receives set of daughter chromosomes
4. poleward movement of chromosomes
220
What happens at telophase?
1. spindle disappears
2. nuclear envelope forms around new daughter cells
3. each new nucleus contains same numbers and kinds of chromosomes as the original parental nucleus
4. division of cytoplasm begins
221
What happens at cytokinesis in animal cells?
furrowing process involving actin filaments divide the cytoplasm
222
What is furrow formation?
division of plasma membrane
223
What happens at cytokinesis in plant cells?
a cell plate forms from which the plasma membrane and cell wall develop (cell plate formation)
224
What is geometric in a cell?
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64
