Exam 2 Flashcards
Competition
A social process that occurs when rewards are given to people for how their performance compares with the performances of others during the same task or when participating in the same event.
Cooperation
A social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievement of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal.
Sherif and Sherif (1969)
Copmetition can be reduced through cooperative efforts to achieve superordinate goals.
Enhancing Cooperation: General principles of Cooperative Games
- Maximize participation
- Maximize opportunities to learn sport and movement skills
- Do not keep score
- Maximize opportunities for success
- Give Positive Feedback
- Provide opportunities for youngster to play different positions
Competitive means - Competitive ends
Competitive means - Competitive ends
The goal is to beat someone else or everyone else from the outset to the end. For example, King of the Mountatin, 100-yard dash
Cooperative Means - Competitive ends:
Cooperative Means - Competitive ends:
Participants cooperate within their group byt compete outside their group. For example, soccer, basketball.
Individual means - Individual ends:
Individual means - Individual ends:
One or more players pursue an individual goal without cooperative or competitive interaction. For example, calisthenics, cross-country skiing.
Cooperative means - individual ends:
Cooperative means - individual ends:
Individuals cooperate and help each other achieve their own goals. For example, helping each other individually improve.
Cooperative means - Cooperative ends
Cooperative means - Cooperative ends
Players cooperate with each other from the outset to the end. Everybody works toward a common goal, sharing the means as well as the ends.
For example, keeping a volleyball from hitting the ground.
Reinforcement
Is the use of rewards and punishments that increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future.
The Principles of Reinforcement
If doing something results in a good consequence (such as being rewarded), people tend to repeat the behavior to achieve additional positive reinforcement.
If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence (such as being punished), people tend not to repeat the behavior to avoid more negative consequences.
Why are the principles of reinforcement complex?
People react differently to the same reinforcement
People are unable to repeat desirable behaviors
People receive different reinforcers in different situations
Schedule of Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio
Is Reinforcement after a fixed or set number of responses.
Schedule of Reinforcement: Fixed Interval
Reinforcement after a fixed or set amount of time.
Schedule of Reinforcement: Variable Ratio
Reinforcement after a variable - sometimes average - number of responses, e.g. slot machines.
Schedule of Reinforcement: Variable Interval
Reinforcement after a variable amount of time.
Positive Approach
Focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior, which increase the likelihood of desirable responses occurring in the future.
Negative Approach
Focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors, which should lead to future redirection of these inappropriate behaviors.
What is a Group?
A group is two or more people who interact and exert mutual influence on each other and share the following characteristics:
A collective sense of identity.
Distinctive Roles
Structured Roles of communication
Group Norms
Group Roles
Involve behaviors required or expected of a person occupying a certain position.
Formal Roles
Are dictated by the nature and structure of the organization.
Informal Roles
Evolve from the group’s dynamics or interactions among group members.
What are Norms?
Norms are shared group expectations about appropriate behavior. Norms define acceptable behavior as a member of the group.
norms are unwritten rules of behavior, but everyone seems to know them and the group will enforce the norms.
Group Structure
Both role clarity and role acceptance are critical for team success.
Role conflict exists when role occupant does not have sufficient ability, motivation, time, or understanding to achieve the goal.
Communication Keys
Communication is used for may purposes: Persuasion Evaluation Information Motivation Problem Solving
All communication contains content (what is said) as well as relational information (how we felt about the persons’s message).
Type of Communication
Interpersonal Communication ( at least two people in a meaningful exchange)
Nonverbal Communication
Intrapersonal communication (self-talk, the communication we have with ourselves).
Strategies for Improving Communication
Convey Rationales
Express Empathy not sympathy.
Use a communication style that is comfortable for you.
learn how to become more empathetic by placing yourself in the shoes of your athletes or students.
Use the positive approach when communicating.
Always acknowledge the greeting of others
Have an open-door policy for your students
Be consistent in administering discipline.
Sending Messages Effectivley
Make verbal messages clear and concise
Pick the right time and place to deliver verbal messages.
Enhance trust with the person receiving the message to ensure verbal messages are appropriately interpreted.
Non-Verbal Communication
Eye contact - where you are looking Proximity - how close you are to pt. Kinesics - body movements gestures Paralanguistics (like nodding the head) Facial Expression Body Language - what your body is doing, posture.
Psychological Skills Training
PST refers to systematic and consistent practice of mental skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and exercise satisfaction.
PST Training Includes?
Arousal regulation Confidence and Motivation Attentional Focus Goal Setting Mental Imagery
Mental Toughness
Ability to focus Rebound from failure Cope with pressure Determination to persist through adversity Mental resilience
Mental toughness is vital for success, PST is used to target specific aspect of metal toughness.
Why would one “avoid” PST
To focus on physical skills PST is only for the problematic athletes Only for Elite athletes Stigma of the term mental of psychological. Coaches 'Don't have time" Lack of Resources.
The Phases of PST
Education
- introduction to concept
- Minimize bias
- form a relationship
Acquisition
- Teach the skill
Practice
-Direct application.
The Competition Process
Includes 4 stages: All of these stages are distinct, but they also are linked to one another. Objective Competitive Situation Subjective Competitive Situation Response Consequence
Objective Competitive Situation
A situation in which performance is compared with some standard of excellence in the presence of at least one other person who is aware of the comparison.
Subjective Competitive Situation
This is how the person perceives, accepts and appraises the objective competitive situation ( this is influenced by personality factors such as competitiveness).
Response
Response is whether a person approaches or avoids an objective competitive situation (at the behavioral physiological and psychological levels).
Consequences
Consequences is whether a person approaches or avoids an objective competitive situation (at the behavioral, physiological and psychological levels).
Ringlemann Effect
The phenomenon by which individual performance decreases as the number of people in the group increases.
Social Loafing
Is when individuals within a group or team put forth less than 100% of their effort due to loss of motivation.
Conditions that Increase Social Loafing
Ab individual’s output cannot be independently evaluated.
The task is perceived to be low in meaningfulness
An individual’s personal involvement in the task is low
A comparison against group standards is not possible.
Other individuals contributing to the collective effort are strangers.
Teammates or coworkers are seen as high in ability.
Individual team members perceive their contribution to the outcome as redundant.
The individual is competing against what he or she believes to be a weaker opponent.
Eliminating Social Loafing
Emphasize the importance of individual pride and unique contributions.
Increase indentifiability of individual performance.
Determine specific situations in which social loafing occurs.
Conduct individual meetings to discuss social loafing.
Appreciate each teammate’s responsibility.
Divide the team into smaller units.
Linear Perspective (life of a team)
Forming-familiarization, formation, interpersonal relationships, development of team structure
Storming-rebellion, resistance to the leader and to control by the group, interpersonal conflict
Norming-development of solidarity and cooperation; group conflicts resolved
Performing-channeling of energies for team success
The Cyclical (life-cycle) Perspective
development of groups is similar to the life cycle - birth, growth, death
emphasis is on the terminal phase of the group’s existence
as the group develops, it psychologically prepares for its own breakup
This model is especially relevant for groups and teams that last 1-=15 weeks
Flow
Flow is a holistic, intrinsically motivating sensation that people feel when they are totally involved in an activity or are on automatic pilot.
The Flow Model
Athletes cannot control flow. Essential elements of flow:
Balance of challenges and skills
Complete absorption in the activity
Clear goals
Merging of action and awareness
Total concentration on the task.
